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This thesis explores adverb distribution in Iquito, a Zaparoan language spoken byapproximately 25 people in the northern Amazon Basin of Peru. The syntactic distributions of Iquito adverbs correspond to four semantic classes: time, manner,epistemic, and an intensifier. Time adverbs have the broadest distribution, occurring before the topic of a topicalized sentence, between topic and subject, after the verb, and after the object of a transitive sentence. Manner adverbs have a similar distribution, but are not found before topic. Epistemic adverbs have an even narrower distribution, never occurring sentence-initially (whether the sentence is topicalized or not) and rarely occurring between topic and subject. The intensifier adverb has the most restricted distribution, as it only occurs before adjectives or other adverbs. These distributions can be used to classify "atypical" adverbs, namely infinitival verbs that are used adverbially. Furthermore, these distributions shed light on the phrase structure of Iquito. Adverbs are analyzed in the literature as adjuncts, and the allowable positions are explained either as the result of adjunction to different constituents (Ernst 2002; Iatridou 1990) or movement between adjoined positions (Cinque 1999). The pre-verbal positions of Iquito adverbs, particularly in irrealis and negated constructions, raise questions for these analyses. The data demonstrate that adverbs can occupy non-adjoined positions, namely the object position in an irrealis (SOV) construction and possibly negation, forcing a reevaluation of the current treatment of adverbs. The research also expands the existing documentation on Iquito. / text

A região amazônica se destaca como a área de floresta tropical mais extensa e diversa do mundo. Essa diversidade é especialmente válida para os pequenos roedores e marsupiais que compõem o grupo mais diversificado de mamíferos Neotropicais, com estimativas de ocorrência de cerca de 107 espécies, sendo 91 endêmicas deste bioma. No entanto, nosso conhecimento sobre os limites específicos e geográfico destas espécies, bem como sua origem ainda está em sua infância. Diversas hipóteses buscam explicar essa a origem desta diversidade, sendo a dos rios como barreiras geográficas uma interpretação de diversificação para esta região, especialmente em grandes rios como o Xingu, que tem seu curso reto e seus tributários fluindo por um declive íngreme do norte do Escudo Brasileiro. Nesse contexto, o presente trabalho teve o objetivo de elaborar uma lista detalhada das espécies de pequenos mamíferos não voadores da região do baixo rio Xingu e discutir aspectos biogeográficos desse grupo para a Bacia Amazônica. Foram analisados aproximadamente 320 indivíduos obtidos através de visitas a coleções zoológicas e provenientes do Programa de Monitoramento, Resgate e Aproveitamento Científico da Fauna da Usina Hidrelétrica de Belo Monte. Foram realizadas análises quali- e quantitativas de características externas e crânio-dentárias, e moleculares, através do sequenciamento dos genes mitocondriais citocromo b e citocromo c oxidase subunidade I. A lista é composta por 35 espécies, sendo 16 marsupais didelfimorfos, 12 roedores sigmodontíneos e sete roedores equimídeos. Para todas elas são apresentadas informações sobre localidade tipo, distribuição geográfica, identificação e comentários taxonômicos. A lista de espécies obtida para a região do baixo rio Xingu destaca-se pela expressiva riqueza com registros de espécies raras, como Glironia venusta, Gracilinanus emiliae, Marmosa lepida, Lonchothrix emiliae, Dactylomys dactylinus, Makalata didelphoides e Echimys chysurus, além da presença de quatro espécies possivelmente não descritas dos gêneros Neacomys, Oligoryzomys e Monodelphis. Uma análise de similaridade com base na riqueza do grupo alvo desse estudo demonstra que o leste da Amazônia é uma região biogeográfica distinta dentro bacia hidrográfica. Através das análises moleculares, verificou-se que o Rio Xingu não atua como agente primário de diversificação para a maioria das espécies que estão sob sua influência biogeográfica, mas sim como mantenedor de diversidade em vários níveis no leste da Amazônia. / The Amazon region stands out as the most extensive and diverse area of tropical rainforest in the world. This high diversity is especially true for the small rodents and didelphid marsupials, which compose the most diversified group of neotropical mammals, with estimates of nearly 107 species, 91 of those are endemic to this biome. However, our knowledge about the species limits and geographic distribution, as well as their origins are still in its infancy. Several hypotheses arouse to explain the Amazon diversity, and the riverine barrier seems appropriate as an interpretation of diversification for this region, especially for rivers like Xingu, which has a straight course and its tributaries flowing through a steep slope from the northern Brazilian Shield. In this context, this study aimed to present a detailed and commented list of the non-volant small mammals of the lower Xingu river region and discuss some biogeographic aspects of these groups across the Amazon Basin. I analyzed about 320 specimens obtained from zoological collections and from the \"Faunal Assessment, Rescue and Scientifical Using Program of UHE Belo Monte\" (Programa de Monitoramento, Resgate e Aproveitamento Científico da Fauna da Usina Hidrelétrica de Belo Monte). There were performed quali- and quantitative analyses of morphological traits from skin and skull, and molecular analyses, through sequencing of mitochondrial genes cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I. The commented list is composed by 35 species, being 16 didelphid marsupials, 12 sigmodontine rodents and seven echimyid rodents. For every species, is presented information about type locality, geographic distribution, identification and taxonomic remarks. The species list obtained here to the low Xingu river region stands out for its expressive richness with records of rare species, such as Glironia venusta, Gracilinanus emiliae, Marmosa lepida, Lonchothrix emiliae, Dactylomys dactylinus, Makalata didelphoides, Echimys chrysurus, besides the presence of four possibly undescribed species from the genera Neacomys, Oligoryzomys and Monodelphis. A similarity analysis based on the non-volant small mammal species composition shows the eastern Amazon as a distinct biogeographical region inside this basin. Regarding the molecular analysis, it was verified that the Xingu river does not act as a primary agent of diversification for most of the species under its biogeographic influence, but as a diversity support at many levels in the eastern Amazon.

O grupo Acanthicus (Siluriformes, Loricariidae) é composto por quatro gêneros: Acanthicus, Megalancistrus, Leporacanthicus e Pseudacanthicus. O monofiletismo do grupo composto por estes géneros foi previamente suportado por dados morfológicos e moleculares. Com o intuito de elucidar as relações filogenéticas entre as espécies do grupo Acanthicus foram analisados 21 representantes do grupo interno e mais 12 táxons de Ancistrini como grupos externos, com base em 121 caracteres fenotípicos de diferentes complexos anatômicos. A análise de parcimônia resultou em duas árvores igualmente parcimoniosas com 453 passos (CI= 0,32 RI= 0,66). O monofiletismo do grupo Acanthicus foi corroborado com base em 11 sinapomorfias, três destas exclusivas: crista do hiomandibular contínua a do quadrado; extremidade distal dos dentes do pré-maxilar acentuadamente curvada e quilhas na lateral do corpo bastante desenvolvidas. As relações entre os táxons do grupo Acanthicus mais Spectracanthicus resultaram na seguinte topologia: ((Spectracanthicus) (Megalancistrus, Acanthicus) (Leporacanthicus, Pseudacanthicus))). A nomenclatura genérica do grupo foi reformulada seguindo a hipótese filogenética e a revisão taxonômica resultou no reconhecimento de 18 espécies válidas no grupo Acanthicus, nove destas novas. No gênero Pseudacanthicus, P. fordii foi considerado sinônimo de P. serratus e P. histrix sinônimo de P. spinosus; ademais seis novas espécies foram descritas para as bacias dos rios Aripuanã, Tocantins, Tapajós, Curuá-Una e Xingu. Oligancistrus foi considerado sinônimo de Spectracanthicus e foram descritas três novas espécies das bacias dos rios Tapajós, Tocantins e Xingu. / The Acanthicus group (Siluriformes, Loricariidae) is currently composed of four genera: Acanthicus, Megalancistrus, Leporacanthicus e Pseudacanthicus. The monophyly of the group has been previously supported by both morphological and molecular data. To investigate the relationships among the Acanthicus group species, 21 taxa of the ingroup and 12 taxa of other Ancistrini as out-groups were studied on the basis of 121 phenotipic characters of different anatomical complexes. Parsimony analysis resulted in two most parsimonious trees with 453 steps (CI= 0,32 RI= 0,66). Monophyly of the Acanthicus group was corroborated by 11 synapomorphies, three of which exclusive: hiomandibular ridge contiguous with ridge of the quadrate, distal edge of premaxillary teeth strongly curved with well-developed keels. Relationships of the Acanthicus group plus Spectracanthicus resulted in the following topology: (Spectracanthicus ((Megalancistrus, Acanthicus) (Leporacanthicus, Pseudacanthicus))). Genus-level nomenclature of the group was reformed on the basis of the phylogenetic hypothesis and of a taxonomic revision which resulted in the recognition of 18 valid species in the Acanthicus group, nine of which new. In the genus Pseudacanthicus, P. fordii was recognized as a junior synonym of P. serratus and P. histrix of P. spinosus, with six new species from the Aripuanã, Tocantins, Tapajós, Curuá-Una and Xingu Rivers Basins. Oligancistrus was recognized as a junior synonym of Spectracanthicus and three new species were described in the latter, from the Tapajós, Tocantins and Xingu River Basins.

Least Cost Path Analysis (LCPA) is a GIS-based approach for calculating the most efficient route between a start and end point, often in terms of shortest time or least amount of energy. The approach is often applied in archaeology to estimate locations of sites, and routes between them. We applied LCPA to estimate how sites in the Andes in the eastern portion of the Inka empire may have connected to sites in the western Amazon Basin. Our approach further used the known Inka Road network to test performance of two types of LCP models (linear vs. areal calculation) and four types of cost functions. LCPs can be calculated with an areal approach, where each cell of the DEM is given one overall slope value, or linearly, where the direction of travel across a cell affects the slope value. Four different algorithms were tested: Tobler's Hiking Function (1993), Tobler's Hiking Function with a vertical exaggeration of 2.3 based on human perceptions of slope (Pingel 2010), Pingel's empirical estimation approach (2010), and Pandolf et al.'s energy expenditure equation (1977) using both an areal and linear approach for all the algorithms. An initial study was conducted in the Cusco region and results were compared to the Inka Road network using the linear accuracy assessment method of Goodchild and Hunter (1997) and Güimil-Fariña and Parcero-Oubiña (2015). The findings suggest that the empirical estimation and caloric cost methods were the most accurate and performed similarly, both were more accurate than travel-time based costs, and linear methods were better than areal based methods when using higher resolution DEM inputs. / Master of Science / Least Cost Path Analysis (LCPA) is a method used for determining the most efficient route between a start and end point, often in terms of shortest time or least amount of energy. The approach is often applied in archaeology to estimate locations of sites, and routes between them. We applied LCPA to estimate how sites in the Andes in the eastern portion of the Inka empire may have connected to sites in the western Amazon Basin. Our approach further used the known Inka Road network to test performance of two types of Least Cost Path (LCP) models (linear vs. areal calculation) and four types of cost functions. LCPs can be calculated with an areal approach, where each cell in an elevation dataset is given one overall slope value, or linearly, where the direction of travel across a cell affects the slope value. Four different ways of calculating cost were tested: Tobler's Hiking Function (1993) using time as a cost, Tobler's Hiking Function with a vertical exaggeration of 2.3 where the cost is based on human perceptions of slope (Pingel 2010), Pingel's empirical estimation approach (2010) based on the preexisting Inka Road system, and Pandolf et al.'s energy expenditure equation (1977). All four ways of calculating costs were used both an areal and linear approach. An initial study was conducted in the Cusco region and results were compared to the Inka Road network by seeing what percent of each LCP was within 500 m of the Inka Road. The findings suggest that the empirical estimation and energy based methods were the most accurate and performed similarly, both were more accurate than travel-time based costs, and linear methods were better than areal based methods when using higher resolution elevation data inputs.

Orientador: Ricardo Cardoso Benine / Resumo: O gênero Stichonodon Eigenmann (1910) foi proposto para alocar Lutkenia insignis Steindachner (1876), uma espécie conhecida de rios da bacia Amazônica. Até o presente momento, Stichonodon insignis não havia sido redescrita. Além disso, pouco era conhecido sobre a sua osteologia e ecologia. Neste trabalho, nós revisamos o material disponível de S. insignis a fim de se fornecer uma redescrição detalhada da espécie. Ademais, é apresentada uma descrição detalhada da sua osteologia e informações sobre a sua ecologia. Apresentamos também dados de análises morfométricas de regressões lineares que devem ser consideradas em análises comparativas com demais membros em Characidae. Uma discussão sobre a alocação de Stichonodon insignis ao nível de subfamília é apresentada. / Abstract: The genus Stichonodon Eigenmann (1910) was proposed to allocate Lutkenia insignis Steindachner (1876), a species known from Amazon basin. To date, Stichonodon insignis was not redescribed. In addition, little was known about its osteology and ecology. In this work, we review the available material of S insignis In order to provide a detailed redescription of the species. Besides of that, and presents a detailed description of its osteology and provide information about its ecology. We also present data Morphometric analysis of linear regressions that should be considered in comparative analyzes with other members in Characidae. A discussion on the allocation of Stichonodon insignis at the subfamily level is presented. / Mestre

O presente trabalho verifica as principais características dos sistemas convectivos de mesoescala (SCMs), com origem continental e oceânica que, em pelo menos um momento do seu ciclo de vida, tiveram trajetória sobre a bacia Amazônica, durante um ano e meio de realização do projeto Green Ocean Amazon (GOAmazon). A análise incluiu a verificação da distribuição espacial, variabilidade diurna, ciclo de vida, deslocamento e áreas médias nas diferentes fases do ciclo de vida. Foi criada uma climatologia utilizando 14 anos de dados para comparar os resultados obtidos durante o GOAmazon. Para os SCMs que se formaram próximos às estações do GOAmazon foram realizadas análises das condições sinóticas, dinâmicas e termodinâmicas observadas durante a gênese e ao longo do ciclo de vida. Os resultados mostram que o número de ocorrências de SCMs continentais é de 7053 por ano. Em 2014 a ocorrência foi de 56,3% deste valor e em 2015 foi de 58% da climatologia para a mesma época do ano. Os SCMs ocorridos durante o GOAmazon também apresentaram menores tempos de vida, deslocamentos médios e velocidades médias. A evolução do ciclo de vida é muito similar para os SCMs de curta e longa duração, com poucas horas de diferença entre a mesma fase. O tempo que os sistemas de curta duração levam em média para alcançar a fase de maturação é de 2 a 3 horas enquanto que os SCMs de longa duração levam 5 a 6 horas. Durante o projeto GOAmazon este tempo foi igual a climatologia para SCMs de curta duração, porém variou entre 3 a 4 horas para SCMs de longa duração. A velocidade média, direção de propagação e deslocamentos médios variam de acordo com a época do ano e ao longo de toda bacia Amazônica. Os deslocamentos médios são maiores durante o inverno. A densidade média mensal de SCMs revela regiões preferenciais de gênese. São elas: 1) corrente abaixo da Cordilheira dos Andes, entre 10ºS e 20ºS/70ºW a 75ºW; 2) confluência do rio Tapajós com o rio Amazonas, por volta de 2,5ºS/54ºW; 3) sobre a Serra da Pacaraima, no Planalto das Guianas, em aproximadamente 5ºN/60ºW; 4) Serra do Imeri, no Planalto das Guianas, em 0º/65ºW e; 5) no norte do Mato Grosso, em torno de 10ºS/55ºW. Durante o projeto GOAmazon as anomalias negativas de densidade de SCMs ocorreram espalhadas ao longo de toda a bacia, com algumas regiões pontuais de maior ocorrência de sistemas. Os SCMs oceânicos ocorrem preferencialmente no período de inverno ao norte da bacia Amazônica. A frequência de ocorrência é baixa (em média 4 sistemas por mês), no entanto, eles possuem grandes áreas durante sua fase de maturação, grandes tempos de vida e deslocamentos. Como a maioria apresenta gênese muito próxima a costa, o desenvolvimento destes sistemas ocorre majoritariamente sobre a bacia Amazônica. Durante o projeto GOAmazon sua ocorrência foi muito menor comparado a climatologia e suas características médias diferentes. A análise detalhada para os 21 casos em que os SCMs ocorreram próximos às estações do GOAmazon mostrou que a combinação entre os ventos alísios direcionados para a bacia Amazônica e sistemas frontais que se aproximaram da região Tropical foram fundamentais na manutenção dos SCMs com longo ciclo de vida. Durante a ocorrência de SCMs com grandes áreas, os valores de cisalhamento foram mais altos comparados aos outros casos. Durante a maior parte dos anos 2014 e 2015 ocorreram padrões anômalos na circulação atmosférica, impulsionados por anomalias na temperatura da superfície do mar no oceano Pacífico Equatorial, o que justificaria a menor ocorrência, tempos de vida e deslocamento dos SCMs. De acordo com a literatura revisada, este é o primeiro trabalho que realiza uma análise climatológica anual da ocorrência de SCMs através de dados de alta resolução temporal e espacial com pouquíssimas falhas usando uma delimitação geográfica da bacia Amazônica, isto é, considerando somente os SCMs que em pelo menos um momento do seu ciclo de vida interagiram com a bacia Amazônica. / In the present study, we analyzed the continental and oceanic mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) that occurred over the Amazon Basin, during one year and six months of Green Ocean Amazon Project (GOAmazon). The analysis included the spatial distribution, diurnal variability, lifecycle, displacement and morphological parameters of the MCSs. A climatology using 14 years data was developed to compare the results obtained during the GOAmazon. A synoptic, thermodynamic and dynamic analysis was made for 21 MCSs that occurred next to the GOAmazon data collection sites. The climatology results show 7053 continental MCSs occurring along the year. In 2014, the occurrence was 56.3% of that value and during the period analyzed in 2015 it was 58%. The MCSs occurred during the GOAmazon also presented shorter lifecycles, displacements and speeds compared to climatology. The lifetime evolution of short lived and long lived MCSs present few hours of difference between the same phase. The time from genesis to maturation phase of short lived systems is 2 to 3 hours and for those long lived the time is 3 to 4 hours. The mean speed, direction and displacement are greater during the winter. The average density reveal preferential regions of genesis. They are: 1) downstream Andes Mountain, among 10ºS and 20ºS/70ºW and 75ºW; 2) confluence of Amazon and Tapajós Rivers, near to 2.5ºS/54ºW; 3) Pacaraima Mountains at Guyana Shield, in approximately 5ºN/60ºW; 4) Imeri Mountains at Guyana Shield, in 0º/65ºW and; 5) between north of Mato Grosso state and south of Pará state, around 10ºS/55ºW. During the GOAmazon the negative density anomalies occurred spread along the Amazon Basin, with some points of greater occurrence. The oceanic MCSs occurred preferentially in the winter season in the northeast of Amazon Basin. Their frequency of occurrence is fewer than continental, in average four MCSs per month. Nevertheless, they have large areas during their maturation phase, longer lifecycles and displacements. Most of them have genesis next to the land and their development is over the Amazon Basin. During GOAmazon their occurrence was fewer than the climatology and the features were different. The analysis for the 21 cases in which MCSs occurred next to GOAmazon stations showed that a combination of trade winds driven to Amazon Basin and frontal systems close to Tropical region were important for keeping the long lived MCSs. During occurrence of large area systems, the wind shear was greater than during other events. In most of 2014 and 2015, anomalous patterns in the atmospheric circulation, triggered by anomalous sea surface temperature in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean, occurred and this may justify the fewer occurrence of MCSs, lifecycle and displacement in that period. From our knowledge of the literature, this is the first work that makes an annual climatological analysis of MCSs occurrence through high temporal and spatial data and very few missing data using a geographical delimitation of Amazon basin. That is, considering only the MCSs that in one moment of their lifecycle, at least, interact with the Amazon Basin.

O conhecimento acerca dos invertebrados devonianos no Brasil teve início em fins do século XIX e a primeira metade do século XX, período no qual foram feitas expedições pioneiras às principais bacias paleozoicas do país - as bacias do Paraná, Parnaíba e Amazonas. Desta fase também resultaram importantes trabalhos científicos (e.g., Clarke, 1913), usados ainda hoje como referência em estudos. Dentre os trilobitas, os grupos mais representativos são os Homalonotidae e os Calmoniidae, cuja importância como ferramentas em questões paleoambientais e paleobiogeográficas vem sendo constatada a partir de recentes revisões sistemáticas em fósseis da Bacia do Paraná. Estes estudos também têm demonstrado que muitas das variações nos fósseis, interpretadas por pesquisadores anteriores como taxonômicas, decorrem de alterações tafonômicas, que podem levar a classificações errôneas. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivos revisar a sistemática dos trilobitas Phacopida (Homalonotidae e Calmoniidae) nas bacias do Parnaíba e Amazonas, incluindo, na primeira localidade, a nova ocorrência de São João Vermelho, no município de João Costa (PI), investigar, sempre que pertinente, a implicação das alterações tafonômicas na sistemática desses fósseis, identificando fatores diagenéticos/intempéricos que podem interferir nos caracteres morfológicos e discutir as implicações paleobiogeográficas dos Homalonotidae e Calmoniidae do Devoniano das bacias do Amazonas e Parnaíba, em relação a outras localidades adjacentes à estas bacias. Resultados das pesquisas mostram que a localidade de São João Vermelho é bastante promissora do ponto de vista paleontológico, pois consiste em uma nova localidade para o táxon M. tuberculatus, o qual também é documentado nas duas subbacias da Bacia do Paraná - Alto Garças e Apucarana, indicando que esta espécie apresenta alto grau de cosmopolitanismo. A análise de exemplares de Burmeisteria (Homalonotidae) desta localidade sugere que as diferenças nas espécies deste gênero no Brasil são mais sutis do que imaginado. Na Bacia do Amazonas, os Phacopida estão representados especialmente por Calmoniidae do gênero Malvinella, também presentes na Bolívia. As relações paleobiogeográficas entre as bacias paleozoicas brasileiras e a Bolívia, durante o Eo e Mesodevoniano, teriam sido mais estreitas do que se imaginava. A principal rota de migração para a Bacia do Parnaíba teria sido através da Bacia do Paraná, conforme constatado pela presença de M. tuberculatus. Já a migração para a Bacia do Amazonas teria se dado a sudoeste desta bacia, já que Malvinella ocorre apenas nesta bacia e na Bolívia / The knowledge on Brazilian Devonian invertebrates started by the end of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, period which pioneering expeditions were made to the main Paleozoic basins of the country - Paraná, Parnaíba and Amazon basins. Important scientific contributions also resulted from this fase (e.g. Clarke, 1913), still used today as reference in studies. Among trilobites, the most representative groups are the Homalonotidae and Calmoniidae, whose importance in paleoenvironmental and paleobiogeographical questions have been noted from recent systematic revisions in Paraná Basin fossils. These studies also have demonstrated that many variations in fossils, interpreted by previous researchers as taxonomic, are due to taphonomic alterations, which can lead to erroneous classifications. In this context, the current study aimed to review the systematics of Phacopida trilobites (Homalonotidae and Calmoniidae) from the Parnaíba and Amazon basins, including, in the former locality, the new occurrence of São João Vermelho, in the João Costa municipality (PI); to investigate, whenever relevant, .the implication of the taphonomic alterations in the systematics of these fossils, identifying diagenetic/weathering factors which can interfere in the morphological features; and to discuss the paleobiogeographic implications of the Homalonotidae and Calmoniidae from the Devonian of the Parnaíba and Amazon basins, in relation to other localities adjacent to these basins. Study results show that the locality of São João Vermelho is paleontologically promising, as it consists of a new place for the M. tuberculatus taxon, which is also documented in the both Paraná Basin subbasins - Alto Garças and Apucarana, indicating that this species is highly cosmopolitan. The analysis of Burmeisteria (Homalonotidae) exemplars from this locality suggests that differences between the species of this genus in Brazil are slighter than thought. In the Amazon Basin, Phacopida trilobites are especially represented by the Calmoniidae genus Malvinella, also present in Bolivia. The paleobiogeographic relations between the Paleozoic Brazilian basins and Bolivia, during Early and Middle Devonian, would have been closer than thought. The main migration route to the Parnaíba Basin would have been through the Paraná Basin, as found by the presence of M. tuberculatus. The migration to the Amazon Basin, in turn, would have occurred southwestward this basin, as Malvinella occurs only in this locality and in Bolivia.

This study is a bachelor degree project which focuses on the lack of safe drinking water in a small village known as Macedonia in the Amazon basin in Colombia. The inhabitants of the village are 850 to the number and have never had access to safe drinking water. To solve this problem a system has been built where the rainwater is harvested in a pond and also from a church roof During the dry season the rainwater in the pond is harvested and pumped into sedimentation tanks. Thereafter, the water is led into the sand filtration tanks. While during the rain season, the rainwater is harvested from a church roof which is situated at highest level in Macedonia. The water is stored in a cistern and then it is led into sand filtration tanks via pipes. This means that the pond water and rainwater are never mixed before entering the filtration tanks. The sand filtration tanks contain about 1000 mm thick layer of sand and under it, a layer of gravel which is placed in the bottom of the tank. It takes a while for the water to be filtered through the sand filtration tank. Afterwards, it is led into the final tank, where the drinking water is stored ready to be used. The method of using slow sand filtration (SSF) is suitable for small scale-projects and therefore for this project a good idea for making drinking water. SSF requires no mechanical power or replaceable parts, this is why the technique is good for purifying water in developing and isolated areas. The result of the system is water with satisfied quality running through pipes and taps, ready to be consumed.

<p>The tropics are a significant source of heat and moisture export, which drive global circulation patterns, thus it is vital to systematically understand the land, ocean and sedimentological interactions within the tropics. The Brazilian continental margin is an ideal region to characterize the tropics due to its unique local oceanography and proximity to the atmospheric engine that is the Amazon Basin. A combination of: 1) terrestrial organics and hydrology; 2) oceanographic temperature, isotopic composition, and salinity and 3) early diagenesis and geochemistry of sedimentary interstitial water and methane hydrate, provide a detailed understanding of the primary constituents that influence the South American tropics.</p><p>Sedimentological, organic and paleoceanographic reconstructions of the Amazon Basin, Brazilian Nordeste, and western equatorial Atlantic have been undertaken on two sediment cores located on the Brazilian continental slope representing 30 and 110 ka, respectively. High-resolution XRF analyses of Fe, Ti, K and Ca are used to define the sedimentological history of the Amazon Basin and northern Nordeste. Here we present elemental ratios of Ti/Ca and Fe/K, in addition to magnetic susceptibility, to determine variability in Amazon Basin and Nordeste hydrology. Bulk organic proxies d13C and d15N of sedimentary organic carbon are used to define the organic history of the Amazon Basin. Peaks in Ti/Ca and Fe/K ratios largely correlate in both the Amazon Basin and in the Nordeste Record. These excursions correlate with commonly modeled global slowdown of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) during increased northern hemisphere glaciation. Differences in the Fe/K and Ti/Ca records suggest periods of increased chemical weathering independent of precipitation driven sediment discharge in the Brazilian Nordeste. Bulk organic geochemistry indicates the vegetative history of the Amazon Basin has been relatively stable during the late Quaternary.</p><p>High-­resolution stable oxygen isotopic analysis and Mg/Ca paleothermometry undertaken on the near-­surface-dwelling planktic foraminiferal species Globierinoides ruber provide a picture of paleoceanographic forcings in the western equatorial Atlantic. The Nordeste core exhibits a rapid warming of ~3.5ºC between the last glacial maximum and the early Holocene. Furthermore, in almost all cases during the last glacial stage, there was a 0.5 to 2ºC warming of the western equatorial Atlantic during the periods of high Ti/Ca ratios that correlate with slowdown of AMOC. Thus, as observed in some previous studies, the western equatorial Atlantic was warm and the adjacent southern tropical continent was wet coincident with increased glaciation in the high latitude northern hemisphere.</p><p>Interstitial pore waters were analyzed from the Amazon Fan and Brazilian continental slope to determine early diagenesis, methane hydrate potential and its geographic variability. Interstitial waters were measured for total Mg, Ca, SO4, alkalinity, Cl, and d18O, combined with seismic bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) to investigate early diagenesis. Interpolated maps of sulfate reduction, sedimentation rate and maximum alkalinity were produced to examine geographic variability in early diagenesis and methane hydrates. Inorganic precipitation of calcium and magnesium, likely via dolomite and siderite, correlates with a decrease in alkalinity through inorganic carbonate precipitation and methanogenesis, but alternatively increases through redox pathways, specifically sulfate reduction.</p><p>Through multiple lines of evidence it is likely that there is extensive methane hydrate occurrence on the Amazon continental shelf. A combination of: 1) A rapid linear decline in sulfate at an unusually shallow depth; 2) Uncommonly high sedimentation rates and terrestrial organic carbon input; 3) Significant variability in what should be conservative chloride concentrations; 4) Large variability in interstitial oxygen isotopes; 5) Widespread occurrence of BSRs provide substantial support for the presence of methane hydrates. Sulfate reduction rates are lowest along the main Amazon channel, with highest values distal of the main channel. Sedimentation rates are relatively low on the continental shelf and surrounding the main channel and highest toward the distal end of the main channel. Sulfate reduction rates provide key insights to the potential geographic variability of methanogenesis and methane hydrate formation. Given the tremendous influx of sediment from the Amazon River, this region is prone to massive sediment failures, subsequent release of methane hydrates, as well as significant potential for natural gas hydrates.</p> / Dissertation