L'objet de cette thèse est de proposer et de développer les différentes mesures multidimensionnelles de la pauvreté. La multidimensionnalité de la pauvreté fait aujourd'hui consensus. Scientifiques, décideurs politiques et professionnels du développement s'accordent pour dire que la seule dimension monétaire (le manque de revenu) ne suffit pas à représenter la pauvreté. En se basant sur les travaux de Sen (Prix Nobel d'Economie) en particulier sur l'approche des capacités, nous proposons quatre mesures différentes de la pauvreté. La première est une mesure monétaire basée sur l'approche utilitaire ; la seconde est une mesure subjective basée sur les expériences des ménages ; la troisième est une mesure multidimensionnelle axiomatique et enfin la dernière est une mesure non axiomatique basée sur la théorie des ensembles flous. Elles sont toutes mises en oeuvre en utilisant les données d'enquêtes EDAM3-IS (Enquête Djiboutienne Auprès des Ménages 2012). Les résultats s'inscrivent dans un contexte de croissance économique que connait Djibouti. Cependant, toutes les mesures utilisées ont montré des grandes disparités régionales entre la capitale et les régions en termes d'infrastructure de base et de bien-être des ménages. Chacune de ses méthodes a fourni des résultats avec différentes interprétations des déterminants de la pauvreté. Cela ne signifie pas qu'il existe une méthode bien meilleure que l'autre, mais chaque approche, dans un contexte particulier, peut-être plus pertinente. Ainsi, l'identification des pauvres en appliquant les différentes mesures de la pauvreté nous a donné un profil différencié. Par conséquent, le décideur doit définir au préalable l'objectif poursuivi dans les politiques de lutte contre la pauvreté. Nous pouvons souligner que l'intégration d'une pondération subjective dans la mesure de la pauvreté est une de nos contributions au développement de mesures multidimensionnelles de la pauvreté. / The aim of this thesis is to propose and develop the various multidimensional measures of poverty. There is a consensus on the multidimensional nature of poverty. Scientists, policy makers and development professionals agree that the monetary dimension (lack of income) is inadequate to represent poverty. On the basis of the work of Sen (Nobel Proze of Economics), particularly on the capability approach, we propose four different measures of poverty. The first one is a monetary measure based on the utilitarian approach ; the second is a subjective measure founded on household experience ; the third is a multidimensional axiomatic measure and the final one is a non-axiomatic measure based on the theory of fuzzy sets. They are implemented using survey data EDAM3-IS (Djiboutian Survey of Households 2012). The esults fall within the framework of economic growth in Djibouti. However, all the measures used have shown great disparities between the capital and the regions in terms of basic infrastructure and household welfare. Each method produced results with different interpretations of the determinants of poverty. This does not mean that there is one method being better than the other but rather each approach, in a particular context, may be more relevant. Thus, identifying the poor by applying the different measures of poverty gave us a clear-cut profile, which implies that the decision-maker must first set the aim in view in the implementation of anti-poverty policies. It can be emphasized that the inclusion of a subjective weighting in the process of measuring of poverty is one of our contributions towards the development of multidimensional measures of poverty.

Le capital social est un concept de plus en plus populaire en économie mais des ambiguïtés persistent quant à la manière de saisir l'aspect "social" de la vie humaine et d'interpréter le terme "capital". Par rapport aux précédents travaux, cette thèse fournit des outils analytiques nouveaux pour identifier et mesurer le capital social et étudier son rôle dans le bien-être individuel. Dans une perspective théorique, ces outils apportent un éclairage sur les raisons de ses différentes interprétations. Nous définissons d'abord le capital social comme l'ensemble des attentes et obligations que les individus accumulent lors des interactions et identifions trois dimensions le composant: l'homogénéité entre individus, la fréquence des contacts et la hiérarchisation des relations. Ces dimensions sont responsables de la fonction de coordination, attribuée au capital social, et du vaste éventail d'effets observés jusqu'à présent. Ce cadre est opérationnalisé à l’aide d’une mesure d’un index multidimensionnel au niveau individuel en Indonésie et un lien avec l'approche des capabilités est établi avec pour objectif de mieux identifier les canaux à travers lesquels le capital social impacte le bien être d’individus. Dans une perspective empirique, une étude des déterminants de l'empowerment des femmes est ensuite proposée avec, comme principale variable explicative, le capital social. Cette thèse démontre que le capital social est, tout d’abord, un concept fondamental dans la compréhension de la capacité à agir et dans le bien-être d’individus et que, de plus, celui-ci peut générer des effets négatifs sur l'empowerment des femmes, simultanément à ses effets positifs et prépondérants. / In the last decades, the concept of social capital has gained increasing popularity in economics. Yet substantial ambiguity exists about how to assess the "social" aspect of human life and what meaning to attribute to the term "capital". To shed a new light on the concept, I develop a new conceptual framework and I make it operational for analysis and policy in the context of development by investigating issues of gender empowerment. From a theoretical perspective, this conceptual framework defines social capital as the amount of expectations and obligations that individuals accumulate when they interact and identifies its constituting dimensions: homogeneity among individuals, frequency of contacts and hierarchization of relationships. These dimensions are responsible for the function of coordination, attributed to social capital, as well for the wide range of outcomes observed in the literature. This framework is then operationalized through an index of social capital at the individual level in Indonesia. A connection with the capability approach to welfare economics is established to better understand those channels through which social capital affects individual well-being. At the empirical level, an investigation of the determinants of women empowerment in the household is consequently proposed, with social capital as the main explanatory variable. This work shows that the concept of social capital is fundamental to explore individuals' agency and well-being and that it has both positive and negative effects on women empowerment.

Com o objetivo de identificar e discutir as inter-relações que aproximam os problemas de restrição de capacidades e liberdades humanas da questão da vulnerabilidade socioambiental, esta pesquisa buscou analisar indicadores de desenvolvimento, previamente selecionados, que refletissem as desigualdades sociais, econômicas e ambientais relativas aos noventa e seis distritos do município de São Paulo. Para discorrer sobre a questão das capacidades e liberdades humanas, a pesquisa bibliográfica levou em conta principalmente, os trabalhos do economista indiano Amartya Sen, em especial seus escritos sobre a abordagem das capacidades na teoria da justiça e do desenvolvimento como liberdade. O estudo de caso utilizou indicadores secundários separados em duas grandes dimensões: vulnerabilidade que corresponde aos indicadores de: condição de... e desenvolvimento que corresponde aos indicadores de: acesso a.... As categorias segundo as quais os indicadores foram classificados são: demografia, habitação, violência, condições de saúde e assistência social, educação, renda e susceptibilidade ao risco ambiental, na dimensão vulnerabilidade; e transportes, infraestrutura em saúde e assistência social, cultura e lazer, infraestrutura em educação, emprego, abastecimento e saneamento, e áreas verdes na dimensão desenvolvimento. Através do agrupamento dos indicadores e transformação das variáveis pela média, obtiveram-se valores de índices tanto para vulnerabilidade, quanto para desenvolvimento. Por meio da utilização de mapas e tabelas, o estudo mostra de que forma a vulnerabilidade e o desenvolvimento estão dispostos no território paulistano. O resultado da pesquisa quantitativa mostrou que cerca de 50% dos distritos paulistanos apresentaram índices de alta vulnerabilidade ou vulnerabilidade extrema, a grande maioria em áreas periféricas. Ao mesmo tempo, apenas dez distritos dos noventa e seis, apresentaram resultados bons de desenvolvimento, sete dos quais inseridos na porção sudoeste do município de São Paulo, área nobre e extremamente valorizada da cidade. Este resultado da análise mostrou que a capital paulista é extremamente desigual dos pontos de vista social, ambiental e econômico, e que os problemas associados à vulnerabilidade se expressam no próprio território do município, de forma que as periferias são o reflexo de espaços altamente segregados, com graves problemas sociais, riscos ambientais iminentes e ainda, baixos níveis de desenvolvimento devido, em especial, à insuficiente atuação do Estado como promotor de políticas públicas. A constatação da vulnerabilidade deveu-se, entre outros fatores, à precariedade de acesso a serviços como transporte, saúde e educação, incluindo demais equipamentos, sobretudo públicos, de acesso ao saneamento básico, lazer e cultura. Além disso, há baixa oferta de empregos locais com boa remuneração e níveis consideráveis de violência e pobreza características que limitam o empoderamento dos grupos sociais residentes, sobretudo dos mais vulneráveis como as mulheres, os jovens, os negros e os idosos. A todo este conjunto de características, atribui-se a responsabilidade pela restrição das capacidades e liberdades elementares dos indivíduos. Dessa forma verificou-se que as desigualdades de vulnerabilidade e desenvolvimento existentes representam as diferenças de capacidades e liberdades entre as populações, e que o enfrentamento desses problemas deve considerar princípios de justiça que levem em conta a construção das capacidades das populações mais desfavorecidas a fim de se promover justiça social e igualdade de oportunidades. / With the objective to identify and discuss the interrelations that approximate the problems of human capabilities e freedoms restriction of issue social and environmental vulnerability, this study examined indicators, previously selected, that reflect the social, economic and environmental inequalities relative to ninety-six districts of the city of São Paulo. To discuss the issue about human capabilities and freedoms, the bibliographic research took into account, mainly, the works of the Indian economist Amartya Sen, in particular his writings about the capability approach, in the theory of justice, and the development as freedom. The case study used secondary indicators separated into two major dimensions: vulnerability, that corresponds to the indicators of \"condition of...\", and development that refers to the indicators of \"access to...\". The categories under which the indicators were classified are: demographics, housing, violence, health and social care, education, income and susceptibility to environmental risk, in the vulnerability dimension; and transport, health and social care infrastructure, culture and recreation, education infrastructure, employment, water and sanitation, and green areas in the development dimension. With the transformation of variables and the grouping of indicators, were obtained values for both indexes: vulnerability and development. Through the use of maps and tables, the study showed how the vulnerability and development are arranged in the São Paulo city. The result of the quantitative survey showed that nearly fifty percent of São Paulo districts have high levels of vulnerability or extreme vulnerability, the large majority in outskirts. At the same time, only ten of the ninety-six districts showed good results of development, seven of which inserted in the southwest portion of city the prime area and extremely rich. This showed that São Paulo is extremely unequal in the points of views social, environmental and economic, and that the problems associated with vulnerability are expressed in the territory, such that the outskirts are the reflection of highly segregated spaces, with serious social problems, imminent environmental risks, and yet, low levels of development, due to, in particular, the inadequate performance of the State as promoter of public polices. The verification of vulnerability is due, among other factors, to the limited access to public services as transport, health and education, including other equipment for access to basic sanitation, recreation and culture. In addition, there is low offer of local jobs with a good salary, and considerable levels of violence and poverty features that limited the empowerment of specific social groups, especially the most vulnerable like as women, younger, blacks and elderly. The whole this package of characteristics is attributed the responsibility for restricting the capabilities and freedoms of the individuals. Therefore, it was found that the inequalities of vulnerabilities and developing represent the difference of capabilities and freedoms between the populations and that for facing these issues, is necessary consider the principles of justice concerning the capacities construction of vulnerable groups, in order to promote social justice and equal opportunities.

The primary goal of this work is to answer this question: if Artificial Intelligences (AI) are proper subjects of moral consideration, then should we develop such AI – that is, AI worthy of moral consideration of its own accord? To answer the above question, it is necessary to provide a systematic overview of whether AI are, or could be, subjects of moral consideration. By combining P. Wang’s definition of AI with AK.M. Andersson’s “The Relevant Similarity Theory”, I aim to identify conditions under which an AI could be demarcated as a proper subject of moral consideration. As a comparison, I also combine Wang’s definition with M.C. Nussbaum’s “Capability Theory”. The proposed theories have two strengths in common – namely that they each are good and contemporary examples of two influential families of views in ethics, and that they, together, represent a fairly wide spectrum of ethical theory. Using the insights gained I first develop an argument showing that beings classifiable as AI under Wang’s definition of intelligence would be correctly demarcated as proper subjects of moral consideration, regardless of preference of the two moral theories. I then develop an argument answering my primary question as such: if AI are proper subjects of moral consideration, then we should not develop AI further. / <p>HT 2021</p>

With the liberalisation of the society and education in the Western Countries, new development horizons have emerged thus altering our expectations from the younger generation and our vision of human fulfilment and happiness. As Dewey stressed, the current advance of technology and democratic ways of life results in the unprecedented rate and speed of changes and ‘it is impossible to foretell definitely just what civilization will be twenty years from now. Hence it is impossible to prepare the child for any precise set of conditions. To prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities’ (Dewey, 1897, p.77). This prompted many educational policies in Western Countries to resort to character education as a long-term solution to the tensions between the demands on the child to succeed in tougher market-led society and the necessity to foster a democratic citizen of the globalised world (The US Partnerships in Character Education Program, 1994; Strategic Plan, 2002; Character Education Framework, 2019).  However, the recurring instances of school violence and shooting (Schaeffer, 1999, p. 2), and the turmoil of incessant military conflicts around the world expose the failure of current policies to foster a modern ‘self’ that would sustain the humanity rather than just democracy, thus making the current goals and priorities sensitive to criticism.    This paper takes on the topic of character education in liberal school setting and views it in a broader sense as part of formation of the modern ‘self’ in liberal society as opposed to traditional Aristotelian reading through virtue ethics and moral character. By studying the current character education policies in the USA, UK, European Union and Sweden, the first chapter of the thesis demonstrates the instrumentality of character education and prioritising educating for citizenship and democratic values. This paper sets to contest this approach to character education and proposes to adopt the idea of The Love of the World advanced as the guiding principle of education by Naomi Hodgson, Joris Vlieghe and Piotr Zamojski in their Manifesto for a Post-Critical Pedagogy (2017) as opposed to ‘educating for….’ formular predominant in the policies. The Manifesto offers the banner but does not elaborate on the content and how to attain the goals. The aim of this thesis is to commence to fill this gap. Carefully laying out the concepts of conservative, liberal and critical theories of education related to character formation, this paper analyses their strengths and week points and consolidates in ‘My Creed’ section what it considers the worthwhile postulates that would help to design character education governed by The Love of the World. Resorting to the educating power of literature I address the question of ‘How to foster character in liberal schooling of today’ when the child and what is good in the world replace the current slogans of educating for citizenry and democracy.

No description available.

[ES] La presente tesis explora dos experiencias de extensión universitaria latinoamericanas desde el enfoque de las capacidades para el desarrollo humano, las cuales son: la Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica y la Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Argentina. Nuestro objetivo es comprender la contribución de tales prácticas para transitar hacia una extensión transformadora. A partir de una aproximación de corte cualitativo, identificamos las capacidades más valoradas por las personas participantes (estudiantes y personas de las organizaciones sociales y comunitarias), así como los recursos institucionales y los factores de conversión que intervienen en tales prácticas extensionistas. Desde una perspectiva crítica de la extensión universitaria y sostenida en los paradigmas constructivista e interpretativista, elegimos el estudio de caso, buscando la comprensión de la realidad y del significado de la experiencia para las personas participantes. En el campo metodológico, se desplegaron diferentes métodos cualitativos, tales como la revisión documental, observación participante, entrevistas y grupos de discusión. En cuanto a los resultados, destacamos la recuperación y sistematización de literatura latinoamericana relacionada con la extensión universitaria, reconociendo la fortaleza de la cultura extensionista para una formación integral, así como su contribución social al desarrollo humano sostenible. Por otro lado, se pone en valor las virtudes metodológicas del enfoque de las capacidades en la educación superior que permitió el diseño del primer índice latinoamericano que recoge las capacidades individuales y colectivas más valoradas por los diferentes actores de la extensión universitaria, así como los principales recursos y factores de conversión que posibilitan la expansión de tales capacidades. El índice aquí presentado agrupa seis capacidades estudiantiles ampliadas durante la experiencia extensionista, que evidencian el enfoque integral y transformador de tales prácticas en el ámbito personal, comunitario y profesional, que se encuentra alineado con los valores del desarrollo humano y el ideario de la Reforma de Córdoba. Por otro lado, desde los contextos locales, se destacó la expansión de tres capacidades individuales y cinco colectivas. A partir de tal análisis, se logró visibilizar la confluencia de diferentes factores (personales, sociales y ambientales) en la expansión de esas capacidades, así como proponer transformaciones universitarias y educativas necesarias para transitar hacia una extensión transformadora. Por último, esta investigación aporta una serie de valores, principios y fines para alcanzar una extensión transformadora alineada con el desarrollo humano sostenible. Para promover esta transición, se requiere que las universidades públicas latinoamericanas impulsen y faciliten procesos de co-diseño que promuevan la creación y actualización de normativa institucional y el fomento de una cultura y gestión institucional dirigidas a potenciar la extensión transformadora. / [CA] La present tesi explora dues experiències d'extensió universitària llatinoamericanes des de l'enfocament de les capacitats per al desenvolupament humà, les quals són: la Universitat Nacional, Costa Rica i la Universitat Nacional de Rosario, Argentina. El nostre objectiu és comprendre la contribució d'aquestes pràctiques per transitar cap a una extensió transformadora. A partir d'una aproximació de tall qualitatiu, identifiquem les capacitats més valorades per les persones participants (estudiants i persones de les organitzacions socials i comunitàries), així com els recursos institucionals i els factors de conversió que intervenen en aquestes pràctiques extensionistes. Des d'una perspectiva crítica de l'extensió universitària i sostinguda en els paradigmes constructivista i interpretativista, triem l'estudi de cas, buscant la comprensió de la realitat i del significat de l'experiència per a les persones participants. En el camp metodològic, es van desplegar diferents mètodes qualitatius, com ara la revisió documental, l'observació participant, les entrevistes i els grups de discussió. Pel que fa als resultats, destaquem la recuperació i sistematització de literatura llatinoamericana relacionada amb l'extensió universitària, reconeixent la fortalesa de la cultura extensionista per a una formació integral, així com la seva contribució social al desenvolupament humà sostenible. D'altra banda, es posa en valor les virtuts metodològiques de l'enfocament de les capacitats en l'educació superior que va permetre el disseny del primer índex llatinoamericà que recull les capacitats individuals i col·lectives més valorades pels diferents actors de l'extensió universitària, així com els principals recursos i factors de conversió que possibiliten l'expansió d'aquestes capacitats. L'índex ací presentat agrupa sis capacitats estudiantils ampliades durant l'experiència extensionista, que evidencien l'enfocament integral i transformador de tals pràctiques en l'àmbit personal, comunitari i professional, que es troba alineat amb els valors del desenvolupament humà i l'ideari de la reforma de Còrdova. D'altra banda, des dels contextos locals, es va destacar l'expansió de tres capacitats individuals i cinc col·lectives. A partir d'aquest anàlisi, es va aconseguir visualitzar la confluència de diferents factors (personals, socials i ambientals) en l'expansió d'aquestes capacitats, així com proposar transformacions universitàries i educatives necessàries per transitar cap a una extensió transformadora. Finalment, aquesta investigació aporta una sèrie de valors, principis i fins per assolir una extensió transformadora alineada amb el desenvolupament humà sostenible. Per promoure aquesta transició, es requereix que les universitats públiques llatinoamericanes impulsin i facilitin processos de co-disseny que promoguin la creació i actualització de normativa institucional i el foment d'una cultura i gestió institucional dirigides a potenciar l'extensió transformadora. / [EN] This thesis explores two Latin American university extension experiences from the perspective of human development capabilities: Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica and Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Argentina. Its objective is to understand the contribution of such practices to move towards a transformative extension. From a qualitative approach, the participants' (students and people from social and community organizations) most valued capabilities were identified, along with the institutional resources and conversion factors involved in such extension practices. From a critical perspective of university extension and sustained in the constructivist and interpretivist paradigms, the case studies to understand the reality and meaning of the participants' experience were chosen. Different qualitative methods were deployed in the methodological field, such as documentary review, participant observation, interviews, and discussion groups. As for the results, the recovery and systematization of Latin American literature related to university extension were highlighted, recognizing the extensionist culture's strength for an integral formation and its social contribution to sustainable human development. On the other hand, there is an emphasis on the methodological virtues of the capabilities approach in higher education that allowed the design of the first Latin American index that gathers the individual and collective capabilities most valued by the different actors of university extension, as well as the primary resources and conversion factors that make possible the expansion of such capabilities. The index presented here brings together six student capabilities that were expanded during the extension experience, which show the comprehensive and transformative approach of such practices in the personal, community and professional fields, and aligned with the values of human development and the ideas of the Reforma de Córdoba. On the other hand, the expansion of three individual and five collective capabilities was highlighted from the local contexts. Based on this analysis, the confluence of different factors (personal, social and environmental) in expanding these capabilities was made visible and proposing the university and educational transformations needed to move towards a transformative extension. Finally, this research provides a series of values, principles and goals to achieve a transformative extension aligned with sustainable human development. To promote this transition, Latin American public universities are required to encourage and facilitate co-design processes that promote the creation and updating of institutional regulations and the promotion of institutional culture and management to enhance the transfer of knowledge and skills to the public sector. / Monge Hernández, CL. (2021). La universidad latinoamericana en la sociedad. Análisis de la relación entre universidad y comunidad desde el enfoque de capacidades para el desarrollo humano [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/166794

The study emphasizes two major issues of development: poverty theories and human development. Human development is understood as a process of expanding human freedoms and potential. Focus is put on the perception of Ethiopians on the promotion of creativity as possible means to foster human development and as a result reduce many dimensions of poverty. The study evaluates the perception of people involved in child development in Ethiopia regarding the promotion of ‘creativity as capability’ as a factor contributing to human development. The conclusions of this study can provide Ethiopian development effort with practical insight on how Ethiopian citizens perceive ‘creativity’ within their culture as potential chance and effective addition to promote human development in Ethiopia. The study identifies several existing as well as absent aspects of creativity within Ethiopian society and presents practical starting points to establish ‘creativity as capability’ on micro-level in Ethiopian communities. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:48:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Bruno Beltrame.pdf: 550537 bytes, checksum: dd98c2c17868e3f8b2d425a2f8ed1be8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-05-19 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The aim of this dissertation is to inquire in what sense it is reasonable to locate in Kenneth Arrow s social choice theory and in John Rawls theory of justice the two main theoretical roots of Amartya Sen s capability approach. It will be argued that Arrow s social choice theory had the role of revealing the main deficiencies of the welfare economics theory. Thus, Arrow s analysis points the limitations to be fulfilled in order to arrive at satisfactory theory of social choice indicating, in this sense, the paths to be pursued. In the same manner, it is argued that Ralws theory of justice provided important elements that inspirated certain ethical positions present in Amartya Sen s thought, which appear in his approach to the problem of social choice. To conclude, the main features of the capability approach that can be directly associated with these two theoretical origins are exposed, and it is argued that Sen s theory simultaneously solves the deficiencies pointed by him in the theoretical structure of Arrow s social choice and embodies, even though in a modified way, elements of Rawls thought / O objetivo dessa dissertação é investigar em que sentido é pertinente localizar na teoria da escolha social de Kenneth Arrow e na teoria da justiça de John Rawls as duas principais raízes teóricas da abordagem das capacidades de Amartya Sen. Argumentar-se-á que a teoria da escolha social de Arrow cumpriu o papel de explicitar as deficiências da teoria econômica do bem-estar. Desse modo, as análises de Arrow apontam as limitações a serem superadas para se chegar a uma teoria satisfatória da escolha social indicando em certa medida rumos a serem seguidos. Da mesma maneira argumenta-se que a teoria da justiça de Rawls forneceu elementos importantes que inspiraram certos posicionamentos éticos evidentes no pensamento de Amartya Sen e que se refletem em suas análises da escolha social. Por fim são apresentadas as principais características da abordagem das capacidades que podem ser diretamente associados a estas duas origens teóricas, e será argumentado que a teoria de Sen ao mesmo tempo soluciona as deficiências apontadas por ele na estrutura teórica da escolha social de Arrow e incorpora, ainda que de forma modificada, elementos presentes no pensamento de Rawls

本文採取Sen的能力方法（capability approach），以平均餘命與學齡兒童就學率為福利的指標，探討臺灣地區1917~1997年間，所得、政府福利支出、教育支出、教育程度與貧窮率對福利的影響。 傳統的福利經濟學以效用來定義福利，所得也是一常常被用來衡量經濟發展（economic development，又稱為人類發展human development）的指標。能力方法以平均餘命為福利指標，並且認為：為了提高人民福利，政府應該重視與人民福祉相關的社會福利政策、教育的普及。雖然這些政策也許不會直接提高一國的所得，但是卻對福利水準有很大的影響。 本文的實證結果印證了Sen的理論。1917~1943年間，在經濟成長慢的環境下，政府的福利與教育政策，提高了人民的福利水準。Dreze and Sen（1989）稱這樣的過程為「支援型」(support-led)的經濟發展。1951~1997年間，在經濟成長快速的環境下，政府提高福利支出與教育的普及，使我國經歷了「成長型」(growth mediated)的經濟發展。