The Jewish revolt against the Romans in 66 CE can be seen as the culmination of years of oppression at the hands of their Roman overlords. The first-century historian Josephus narrates the developments of the war and the events prior. A member of the priestly class and a general in the war, Josephus provides us a detailed account that has long troubled historians. This book was an attempt by Josephus to explain the nature of the war to his primary audience of predominantly angry and grieving Jews. The causes of the war are explained in different terms, ranging from Roman provincial administration, Jewish apocalypticism, and Jewish internal struggles. The Jews eventually reached a tipping point and engaged the Romans in open revolt. Josephus was adamant that the origin of the revolt remained with a few, youthful individuals who were able to persuade the country to rebel. This thesis emphasizes the causes of the war as Josephus saw them and how they are reflected both within The Jewish War and the later work Jewish Antiquities. By observing the Roman provincial administration spanning 6-66 CE, I argue that Judaea had low moments sprinkled throughout the time but in 66 there was something particularly different, according to Josephus. Josephus presents the governors and other important characters in the war in a very distinct way through rhetoric, narrative, and other methodology. The idea of a beginning to this revolt, no matter how obscure or hidden by Josephus, is the reason I want to examine the works of Josephus the historian.

To describe a unified Jewish identity in the Mediterranean in the period between 200 BCE and 200 CE is incorrect, since each Jewish community approached its identity in unique ways. These varied on the basis of time, place, and how the non-Jewish population reacted to the Jews and interpreted Judaism. This thesis examines the three major centres of Jewish life in the ancient world - Rome, Alexandria in Egypt, and Judaea - demonstrate that Jewish identity was remarkably and surprisingly fluid. By examining the available Jewish, Roman, and Greek literary and archaeological sources, one can learn how Jewish identity evolved in the Greco-Roman world. The Jews interacted with non-Jews daily, and adapted their neighbours’ practices while retaining what they considered a distinctive Jewish identity. / October 2016

O principal objeto desta pesquisa consiste em analisar a influência exercida pela religião no contexto da sociedade judaica do período do segundo templo (516 A.E.C. 70 E.C.), mais especificamente avaliar se o ímpeto revolucionário que promovera a primeira Grande Guerra Judaica contra o domínio romano dependia de uma forma característica de profetismo, a saber, a apocalíptica. A conexão que o apocalipticismo possuía com o ambiente do primeiro século se deveu em virtude das diversas crises sociais e políticas que impuseram um ritmo dinâmico para as estruturas nacionais, porquanto concomitante às vicissitudes que emergiam ocorria certa adequação traumática de novos elementos relativos ao fenômeno religioso, cujas formas de expressão procuravam resgatar os antigos postulados, valores e promessas da Lei de Moisés e dos profetas clássicos, tornando-os válidos para situações contemporâneas. Desse modo os cativeiros e diásporas experimentados por tantos períodos passavam a favorecer o intercâmbio ideológico que perfez as peculiaridades e aspectos formadores dos movimentos apocalípticos, o que demonstrava um nível de dependência pelo qual movimentos religiosos judaicos se espelhavam em culturas vizinhas, em um diálogo paradoxal que combinava resistência cultural e assimilação de linguagem. Os resultados fornecidos nessa dissertação permitem afirmar que a hipótese que restringe toda a responsabilidade pelas ações coletivas ao fanatismo religioso de uma alegada sociedade primitiva é comprometida em sua validade, pois tal conclusão deve ser considerada reducionista por não atentar para a complexidade que acompanhou, historicamente, todo o estabelecimento da sociedade judaica daquele período. Assim, recomenda-se que haja abordagens mais críticas e que, não obstante, se coloquem no mesmo grau de dificuldade requerido pelo objeto, a partir de uma atitude que integre os indicadores sociais com o fator religioso. Portanto, é pautado nessa perspectiva englobante que a apocalíptica judaica foi estudada neste trabalho, como fator potencialmente relevante dentro do estado de insurreição da Palestina do primeiro século. / The central object of this research consists of evaluate the influence exerted by religion in the context of Jewish society of second temple period (516 BCE 70 CE), more particularly assessing if the revolutionary impetus which promoted the first Great Jewish War against the Roman dominion depended of a characteristic prophetism, that is, the apocalyptic. The connection that apocaliptycism had with first century setting was due to the various social and political crises that imposed a dynamic ritm to national structures, inasmuch as concurrently with the changes which emerged occurred a certain traumatic adequacy of new elements related to religious phenomenon, whose forms of expression intended to rescue ancient postulates, values, and promises of Moses Law and classical prophets, making it valid for contemporary situations. Thereby, the captivities and Diasporas suffered during many periods started to favor the ideological exchange which made up the traits and aspects that composed the apocalyptic movements, what demonstrated a dependency level by which Jewish religious movements mirrored in neighboring cultures, through a paradoxal dialogue that blended cultural resistance and language assimilation. The results furnished in this dissertation allow one to state that the hypothesis which attributed to the religious fanaticism all responsibility for collective actions of a so called primitive society is impaired in its validity, for such a conclusion must be considered reductionist because it does not realize the intricacy which historically accompanied the entire establishment of Jewish society of that period. Therefore, it is suggested the adoption of more critic approaches capable to place themselves in the same difficulty level required by the object, from an attitude that integrates the social indicators with the religious factor. Thus, is based on this encompassing perspective that Jewish apocalyptic was studied in this essay, as a factor potentially relevant inside the insurrectionist state of first century Palestine.

O principal objeto desta pesquisa consiste em analisar a influência exercida pela religião no contexto da sociedade judaica do período do segundo templo (516 A.E.C. 70 E.C.), mais especificamente avaliar se o ímpeto revolucionário que promovera a primeira Grande Guerra Judaica contra o domínio romano dependia de uma forma característica de profetismo, a saber, a apocalíptica. A conexão que o apocalipticismo possuía com o ambiente do primeiro século se deveu em virtude das diversas crises sociais e políticas que impuseram um ritmo dinâmico para as estruturas nacionais, porquanto concomitante às vicissitudes que emergiam ocorria certa adequação traumática de novos elementos relativos ao fenômeno religioso, cujas formas de expressão procuravam resgatar os antigos postulados, valores e promessas da Lei de Moisés e dos profetas clássicos, tornando-os válidos para situações contemporâneas. Desse modo os cativeiros e diásporas experimentados por tantos períodos passavam a favorecer o intercâmbio ideológico que perfez as peculiaridades e aspectos formadores dos movimentos apocalípticos, o que demonstrava um nível de dependência pelo qual movimentos religiosos judaicos se espelhavam em culturas vizinhas, em um diálogo paradoxal que combinava resistência cultural e assimilação de linguagem. Os resultados fornecidos nessa dissertação permitem afirmar que a hipótese que restringe toda a responsabilidade pelas ações coletivas ao fanatismo religioso de uma alegada sociedade primitiva é comprometida em sua validade, pois tal conclusão deve ser considerada reducionista por não atentar para a complexidade que acompanhou, historicamente, todo o estabelecimento da sociedade judaica daquele período. Assim, recomenda-se que haja abordagens mais críticas e que, não obstante, se coloquem no mesmo grau de dificuldade requerido pelo objeto, a partir de uma atitude que integre os indicadores sociais com o fator religioso. Portanto, é pautado nessa perspectiva englobante que a apocalíptica judaica foi estudada neste trabalho, como fator potencialmente relevante dentro do estado de insurreição da Palestina do primeiro século. / The central object of this research consists of evaluate the influence exerted by religion in the context of Jewish society of second temple period (516 BCE 70 CE), more particularly assessing if the revolutionary impetus which promoted the first Great Jewish War against the Roman dominion depended of a characteristic prophetism, that is, the apocalyptic. The connection that apocaliptycism had with first century setting was due to the various social and political crises that imposed a dynamic ritm to national structures, inasmuch as concurrently with the changes which emerged occurred a certain traumatic adequacy of new elements related to religious phenomenon, whose forms of expression intended to rescue ancient postulates, values, and promises of Moses Law and classical prophets, making it valid for contemporary situations. Thereby, the captivities and Diasporas suffered during many periods started to favor the ideological exchange which made up the traits and aspects that composed the apocalyptic movements, what demonstrated a dependency level by which Jewish religious movements mirrored in neighboring cultures, through a paradoxal dialogue that blended cultural resistance and language assimilation. The results furnished in this dissertation allow one to state that the hypothesis which attributed to the religious fanaticism all responsibility for collective actions of a so called primitive society is impaired in its validity, for such a conclusion must be considered reductionist because it does not realize the intricacy which historically accompanied the entire establishment of Jewish society of that period. Therefore, it is suggested the adoption of more critic approaches capable to place themselves in the same difficulty level required by the object, from an attitude that integrates the social indicators with the religious factor. Thus, is based on this encompassing perspective that Jewish apocalyptic was studied in this essay, as a factor potentially relevant inside the insurrectionist state of first century Palestine.

The thesis mainly studies social-historical co(n)texts to understand the polemic in Revelation against the so-called ‘Jews’ and a self-professed prophetess named ‘Jezebel’ (Rev 2-3). The enquiry centres on two areas: (1) the underlying issues to the polemic against the abovenamed contenders, and (2) a reading of a polemical technique in the text against prophetess ‘Jezebel’ through a specific web of associations involving two ‘Jezebels’ and a great harlot. Preliminary studies provide the framework for the main enquiry. ‘Historical anchorage’ is attained in the echoes/allusions of the beast from the sea-abyss to emperor Titus (Ch. 2) and the ‘Satanic trio’ and their cult (Rev 13) to the Flavian dynasty and cult (Ch. 3). A real crisis for Christians is seen late in Domitian’s time involving pressure from the Flavian provincial temple, widespread false accusations of άθεότηζ άσέβεια or maiestas and pressures from Domitian’s rigorous exaction of the Jewish tax. These matters are seen to implicate both Jewish and Gentile Christians (Ch. 4). The figure of the beasts, the social pressure from the imperial cult, and the vulnerability of Christians reflected in these preliminary studies contribute to a fuller understanding of the anti-Judaistic polemic. There are reasons to think that the anti-Judaistic polemic in Rev 2:9-10 and 3:9 is not aimed at the Jewish community per se, but acts to discourage Christians from feigning affiliation with the synagogue to escape social pressure from the imperial cult. There is a growing importance of the imperial cult towards the end of the first century C.E. in Asia Minor, and a judaizing tendency among some Christians there late first century and beyond. Importantly, Rev 14:9- 11 reflects the author’s major concern about (1) participation in the imperial cult and (2) Christian ‘judaizing’ behaviour (the mark of beast as tefillin worn by outsiders to Rabbinic Judaism). Under the author’s creative hand, the beast from the land/false prophet becomes the ‘Satanic’ source of pressure to these two aspects (cf. 13:11-17; Ch. 5). The second major part demonstrates a polemical technique in the text that binds the prophetess ‘Jezebel’ with an OT Queen and the Great Harlot (Rev 17-18). Social meals with drinking parties in guilds/associations and the imperial cult could have been a common context for allurements to sexual immorality and eating idol-food that ‘Jezebel’ advocates. I construct a picture of the prophetess ‘Jezebel’, who perhaps doubles as a patroness of a trade guild incorporating members from the Thyatiran church. Pagan ‘mysteries’ could have been a part of her activities (Ch. 6). I also examine the Great Harlot within the Graeco-Roman context giving attention to her depiction as tyrannical and sexually immoral queens and assimilated goddesses, such as Isis, Cybele, Aphrodite and Roma (Ch. 7). The OT Queen Jezebel is also studied within her social-historical context. She is seen to take on the image of the ‘woman at the window’ (2 Kgs 9:30), reflective of goddess Astarte or her temple servant. Her role as the ‘הבׂבג’ (great lady; 2 Kgs 10:13) and queen mother also fits that of another goddess, Asherah, whose prophets she hosts (Ch. 8). The destruction of Queen Jezebel and that of the Great Harlot contain a polemic against pagan deities they both embody. The prophetess veering into pagan grounds of idolatry is bound tightly with them and is indirectly castigated for her syncretistic practices (Ch. 9). Overall, the author’s polemic in Revelation acts to deter Christians from veering into the grounds of ‘Satan’—the imperial cult and the synagogue (as the author puts it)—and against behaviours, such as sexual license and eating food offered to idols, that would allow Christians to easily enter contexts involving pagan worship.

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This thesis examines the progression from relatively peaceful relations between Alexandrians and Jews under the Ptolemies to the Diaspora Revolt under the Romans. A close analysis of the literature evidences that the transition from Ptolemaic to Roman Alexandria had critical effects on Jewish status in the Diaspora. One of the most far reaching consequences of the shift from the Ptolemies to Romans was forcing the Alexandrians to participate in the struggle for imperial patronage. Alexandrian involvement introduced a new element to the ongoing conflict among Egypt’s Jews and native Egyptians. The Alexandrian citizens consciously cut back privileges the Jews previously enjoyed under the Ptolemies and sought to block the Jews from advancing within the Roman system. Soon the Jews were confronted with rhetoric slandering their civility and culture. Faced with a choice, many Jews forsook Judaism and their traditions for more upwardly mobile life. After the outbreak of the First Jewish War Jewish life took a turn for the worse. Many Jews found themselves in a system that classified them according to their heritage and ancestry, limiting advancement even for apostates. With the resulting Jewish tax (fiscus Judaicus) Jews were becoming more economically and socially marginalized. The Alexandrian Jews were a literate society in their own right, and sought to reverse their diminishing prestige with a rhetoric of their own. This thesis analyzes Jewish writings and pagan writings about the Jews, which evidences their changing socio-political position in Greco-Roman society. Increasingly the Jews wrote with an urgent rhetoric in attempts to persuade their fellow Jews to remain loyal to Judaism and to seek their rights within the construct of the Roman system. Meanwhile, tensions between their community and the Alexandrian community grew. In less than 100 years, from 30 CE to 117 CE, the Alexandrians attacked the Jewish community on at least three occasions. Despite the advice of the most Hellenized elites, the Jews did not sit idly by, but instead sought to disrupt Alexandrian meetings, anti-Jewish theater productions, and appealed to Rome. In the year 115 CE, tensions reached a high. Facing three years of violent attacks against their community, Alexandrian Jews responded to Jewish uprisings in Cyrene and Egypt with an uprising of their own. Really a series of revolts, historians have termed these events simply “the Diaspora Revolt.”

The thesis "Eschatological Discourse in Mark's Gospel and Possibilities of Its Interpretation" deals with traditions used by Mark, possible dating of pre-markan textual layer and the discourse itself, with historical context of its origination and also with the interpretation of individual verses. Also various authors' commentaries are presented and evaluated. In the last chapter, all the findings are summarized and appraised, on which basis a possible interpretation of the Eschatological discourse is proposed considering its historical context. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

This thesis investigates how understandings of history in diverse texts of the Graeco-Roman period illuminate Lukan eschatology. Two strands of Lukan scholarship have contributed to an enduring tendency to underestimate the centrality of eschatology to Luke/Acts. Hans Conzelmann's thesis, that Luke focused on history rather than eschatology as a response to the parousia's delay, has dominated Lukan scholarship since the mid-twentieth century, with concomitant assumptions about Luke's politics and understanding of suffering. Recent Lukan scholarship has centred instead on genre and rhetoric, examining Luke/Acts predominantly in relation to ancient texts deemed the same genre while overlooking themes (including those of an eschatological character) that these texts do not share. This thesis offers a fresh approach. It illuminates the inherent connections between Luke's understanding of history and its end, and demonstrates significant ways in which Luke's eschatological consciousness shapes key themes of his account. By extending comparisons to a wider range of texts, this study overcomes two clear methodological shortfalls in current research: limiting comparisons of key themes to texts of similar genre, and separating non-Jewish from Jewish texts. Having established the need for a new examination of Luke's eschatology in Chapter 1, in Chapter 2 I set out the study's method of comparing diverse texts on themes that cut across genres. Chapters 3 to 6 then consider each key text and Luke/Acts in relation to a different aspect of their writers' conceptions of history: the direction and shape of history; determinism and divine guidance; human culpability and freedom; and the present and the end of history. The analysis shows that in every aspect of history examined, Luke/Acts shares significant features of the texts with which, because they do not share its genre, it is not normally compared. Setting Luke/Acts in conversation with a broader range of texts highlights Luke's periodised, teleological view of history and provides a nuanced picture of Luke's understanding of divine and human agency, all of which is affected in fundamental ways by his portrayal of the present time already within the final period of history. As a result, this study not only clarifies Lukan eschatology, but reaffirms the importance of eschatology for Lukan politics and theodicy.

This essay is based on trying to understand the relationship that exists between Josephus’ writings and the pseudepigraph Assumptio Mosis. Although the comparisons made between the texts in this essay are not enough to give a definite answer, none of the examples exclude that Josephus may have used Assumptio Mosis as a primary source. Rather, there are indications in which a direct relationship between Josephus and Assumptio Mosis potentially could explain from where Josephus acquires some of his source material, especially for his narrative of the time period around 4 BCE–6 CE. / Denna uppsats bygger på att försöka förstå relationen som finns mellan Josefus skrifter och pseudepigrafen Assumptio Mosis. Även om jämförelserna som görs mellan skrifterna i denna uppsats inte räcker för att ge ett säkert svar i slutändan, utesluter inga av exemplen att Josefus kan ha använt Assumptio Mosis som direkt källa. Snarare finns indikationer i vilka en direkt relation mellan Josefus och Assumptio Mosis skulle kunna förklara varifrån Josefus hämtar en del av sitt källmaterial, inte minst för hans narrativ om tiden runt 4 f.v.t–6 v.t.