abstract: The implications of a changing climate have a profound impact on human life, society, and policy making. The need for accurate climate prediction becomes increasingly important as we better understand these implications. Currently, the most widely used climate prediction relies on the synthesis of climate model simulations organized by the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP); these simulations are ensemble-averaged to construct projections for the 21st century climate. However, a significant degree of bias and variability in the model simulations for the 20th century climate is well-known at both global and regional scales. Based on that insight, this study provides an alternative approach for constructing climate projections that incorporates knowledge of model bias. This approach is demonstrated to be a viable alternative which can be easily implemented by water resource managers for potentially more accurate projections. Tests of the new approach are provided on a global scale with an emphasis on semiarid regional studies for their particular vulnerability to water resource changes, using both the former CMIP Phase 3 (CMIP3) and current Phase 5 (CMIP5) model archives. This investigation is accompanied by a detailed analysis of the dynamical processes and water budget to understand the behaviors and sources of model biases. Sensitivity studies of selected CMIP5 models are also performed with an atmospheric component model by testing the relationship between climate change forcings and model simulated response. The information derived from each study is used to determine the progressive quality of coupled climate models in simulating the global water cycle by rigorously investigating sources of model bias related to the moisture budget. As such, the conclusions of this project are highly relevant to model development and potentially may be used to further improve climate projections. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Mechanical Engineering 2013

Abstract The work will give the picture of what four- and five-year-olds know about the water cycle in nature and in the society. Is there any difference depending on whether a boy or a girl is answering? The work will as well try to describe a picture of how a pre-school could plan their work on a sustainable society, science, and increased gender equality. To answer these questions the information has been received from interviews with children and by studying pre-school’s local plan.     Earlier research on the area of water shows that it is important before working with a new topic to find out what knowledge the children already have, so that the process could be as worthwhile as possible. The proceeding work should be based on children’s previous knowledge of the topic.    The research has been done on twelve four- and five-year-old children with the help of individual interviews. The result of the research shows that the children have some knowledge of the words which are important for understanding of the water cycle in nature, but they are not capable of talking about the entirety, as the complete cycle. The water cycle in the society is even more difficult for the children to describe, although there were some children who could explain the function of the water tower. The children do not even show the understanding or knowledge of the words which are included into the concept. The local plan gives a good picture of how the work could be planned in an appropriate way to increase the environmental awareness and equality.    To sum up, this work will show a picture of what children know nowadays about the water cycle. Different answers can be received depending on the location of the pre-school. Identical background can lead to similar answers. If pre-schools have an opportunity to go to the forest often, the children then have the experience from there as well and answer more similar than if the opportunity doesn’t exist. The teacher shall help the children to explore there environment in as simple and interesting way. A well-planned local plan helps the pre-school become as good as possible. The children feel participating if they get attention and praise.  Key-words: The water cycle, Children's thoughts, Gender, Local plan. / Sammanfattning Arbetet ger en bild av vad fyra och femåringar kan om vattnets kretslopp i naturen och i samhället. Är det någon skillnad i svar om det är en pojke eller en flicka som svarat? Det försöker även ge en bild av hur en förskola kan planera för ett hållbart samhälle, naturvetenskap, och ökad jämställdhet. Information för att få svar på dessa frågor har hämtats från barnintervjuer och studie av förskolans lokala verksamhetsplan.                                                                                         Tidigare forskning inom området vatten visar på att det är viktigt att man tar reda på vad barnen har för förkunskaper när ett nytt område startas för att det ska bli så bra som möjligt. Barnens förkunskaper ska vara en grund för det fortsatta arbetet.    Studien har genomförts på tolv stycken barn i fyra- fem års åldern i enskilda intervjuer. Resultaten av undersökningen visar på att barnen har kunskap kring en del ord som är viktiga för att förstå vattnets kretslopp i naturen men de kan inte sätta ihop detta till en helhet, ett slutet kretslopp. Vattnets kretslopp i samhället är än svårare för barnen att kunna förklara även om det fanns barn som kunde redogöra för vattentornets funktion. Barnen har sämre förståelse och kunskap om vilka ord som berör vattnets kretslopp. Verksamhetsplanen ger en god bild av hur man kan planera sin verksamhet på ett bra sätt för ökad miljömedvetenhet och jämställdhet.¨   Sammanfattningsvis ska detta arbete försöka spegla vad barn kan idag om vattnets kretslopp. Svaren kan skilja sig åt beroende på var någonstans förskolan är placerad. Lika förutsättningar kan leda till liknande svar. Om förskolor har möjlighet att gå till skogen ofta har barnen en erfarenhet därifrån och svarar då mer lika än om möjligheten inte finns. Pedagogen ska hjälpa barnen att kunna utforska sin omgivning på ett enkelt och roligt sätt. En bra och genomtänkt verksamhetsplan hjälper arbetet på förskolan att bli så bra som möjligt. Barnen känner sig delaktiga om de får uppmärksamhet och beröm. Nyckelord: Vattnets kretslopp, Barns tankar, Genus, Verksamhetsplan.

Orientador: Pedro Wagner Gonçalves / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociencias / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T21:15:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Hagy_RenatoDonato_M.pdf: 1400181 bytes, checksum: b9691aa71a2d37bd90d3310898032759 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: O ciclo da água é de fundamental importância. Apesar disso, o tratamento desse tema em livros didáticos de ensino básico pouco contribui para a formação de uma idéia científica. Para enfrentar o tratamento fragmentado presente em livros didáticos de Geografia e Ciências, planejamos atividades diferenciadas para investigar como alunos de 11-12 anos de idade interpretam fenômenos relacionados à água subterrânea. Isso conduziu ao exame de uma aula realizada em escola pública do município de Ribeirão Preto-SP, cidade que depende da água subterrânea para o abastecimento público. A aula apoiou-se em manipulação de amostras de rochas e buscou-se identificar as idéias prévias e discutir as dificuldades cognitivas no processo de aprendizagem das noções de porosidade e a permeabilidade. Percebeu-se que a natureza oculta do reservatório subterrâneo do ciclo da água favorece a manifestação de idéias não científicas para explicar os intercâmbios da água desse reservatório em relação aos demais. Apesar de perceberem a infiltração em rochas porosas, os alunos criam interpretações próprias ao relatarem como a água fica armazenada no interior da rocha. A noção mais comum apresentada pelos alunos corresponde em relacionar a rocha a uma esponja. Esse modo de pensar mostrou correlação com pesquisas que serviram de base para este estudo, e mostram a necessidade de uma melhor formação (tanto inicial quanto continuada) de professores. Embora entender o ciclo da água e o comportamento da água subterrânea tenha importância social, econômica e cultural para nossa sociedade, pouca atenção é dada ao assunto no Ensino Básico. / Abstract: The water cycle is very important. However, the way textbooks for primary and secondary school have been presenting this theme, doesn't contribute to make rise a scientific idea. To face that problem, in order to work the fragmented vision exposed in Geography and Science textbooks, we developed differentiated scholar activities that helped us investigate how 11-12 years old students interpretate phenomena related to underground water. We analyze one class realized in a public school at the city of Ribeirão Preto-SP (this town depends on underground water for public water supply). This class was based on the student's manipulation of rock samples, through wich we tried to map their previous ideas and discuss their cognitive difficulties at learning the concepts of porosity and permeability. We found that the "hidden" property of the underground water benefits the appearance of non-scientific ideas to explain the water trades in this kind of reservoir. Despite the fact that they realize infiltration in porous rocks, the students create their own interpretation when reporting how water gets stored within the rock. Student's most common explanation for that is to relate the rock to a sponge. This way of thinking is related to other researches about the theme and points to the necessity of a better qualification (initial or late education) of teachers. Although the comprehension of water cycle and the paths of underground water is considered important socially, economically and culturally in our society, in primary and secondary schools, short attention have been dismissed to this subject. / Mestrado / Mestre em Ensino e Historia de Ciencias da Terra

La modélisation hydrologique est un moyen pratique de quantifier les réactions du débit des rivières au changement climatique et à la gestion humaine de l’environment et de l’eau. Cependant, il existe des incertitudes à la fois dans les entrées des modèle s(par exemple, les variables atmosphériques) et les modèles eux même(par exemple, les structures de modèle et les paramètres de modèle), qui peuvent affecter la précision du modèle et les conclusions. En se concentrant sur différentes sources d'incertitude, cette thèse passe en revue les études antérieures et propose de nouvelles approches pour estimer et comparer les incertitudes avec leurs applications concentrées sur la Chine. Cette thèse propose d’abord une approche tridimensionnelle de la partition de la variance qui estime l’incertitude des multiples produits de précipitation de types différents. La nouvelle estimation utilise des informations complètes dans les dimensions temporelle et spatiale et constitue donc un indicateur plus complet pour l'évaluation de l'incertitude, en particulier pour plusieurs jeux de données. Cette thèse propose ensuite un cadre ORCHIDEE-Budyko permettant d'attribuer le biais de décharge entre la simulation du modèle (fournie par le modèle de surface ORCHIDEE) et les observations aux sources d'incertitude des variables atmosphériques et de la structure du modèle. Le cadre qualifie la possibilité d'incertitudes différentes avec l'hypothèse de Budyko basée sur des facteurs physiques et le soutien de littératures existante. Cette thèse passe enfin en revue les activités humaines et leur impact sur le débit des rivières en Chine, ainsi que les approches associées utilisées pour la quantification. L’impact humain qui a été quantifié par la différence entre le débit fluvial observé et celui qui a été naturalisé est ensuite comparé à des simulations multi-modèles conduites par différents forçages. Les résultats montrent que l’incertitude dans les variables atmosphériques (par exemple, les précipitations) est grande, en particulier pour les modèles de circulation générale (GCMs). L'incertitude des précipitations est très probablement supérieure à celle de l'incertitude du modèle. L'incertitude associée au débit modélisé avec différents forçages est supérieure à l'ampleur de l'impact humain pour la plupart des régions, en particulier dans le sud de la Chine, ce qui rend la la quantification de l'impact humain pour ces régions difficile. Cette compréhension des incertitudes dans le cycle naturel de l'eau et de la gestion que lui imposent les hommes est une condition préalable à toute tentative de modélisation des pressions anthropiques. / Hydrological modeling is a practical means to quantify responses of river discharge to climate change and human management. However, there are uncertainties in both the model input (e.g., atmospheric variables) and the models (e.g., model structures and model parameters), that can affect the model accuracy and the conclusions. Focusing on different uncertainty sources, this thesis reviews the past studies and provides new approaches for estimating and comparing the uncertainties with their applications concentrated over China. This thesis first proposes a three-dimensional variance partitioning approach that estimates the uncertainty among multiple precipitation products with different types. The new estimation uses full information in temporal and spatial dimensions and thus is a more comprehensive metric for uncertainty assessment especially for multiple datasets. This thesis then proposes a ORCHIDEE-Budyko framework that helps attribute the discharge bias between model simulation (provided by land surface model ORCHIDEE) and observations to uncertainty sources of atmospheric variables and model structure. The framework qualifies the possibility of different uncertainties with physical-based Budyko hypothesis and support of related literatures. This thesis finally reviews the human activities and their impact on river discharge over China regions as well as the related approaches that used for the quantification. The human impact that quantified as the difference between observed river discharge and the naturalized ones is then compared with multi-model simulations driven by different forcing inputs. Results show that the uncertainty in atmospheric variables (e.g., precipitation) is large especially for General Circulation Models (GCMs). Precipitation uncertainty is very likely larger than that of the model uncertainty. The uncertainty in the modeled discharge with different forcing is larger than the magnitude of human impact for most of the regions especially in south China, which impedes the credibility of human impact quantification for those regions. This understanding of uncertainties in the natural water cycle and the management humans impose on it is a prerequisite before attempting to model the anthropogenic pressures.

No description available.

A cadeia trófica do Pantanal foi investigada durante um ciclo hidrológico completo (1998-99) por meio da utilização do método de isótopos estáveis múltiplos (d13C e d15N), com o objetivo de identificar as fontes primárias de carbono que regem o fluxo de energia do sistema. Os produtores e consumidores primários foram amostrados em um lago marginal (baía do Castelo), representativo da planície de inundação do rio Paraguai, sendo: algas (sestônicas e epifíticas), plantas vasculares (emergentes, submersas e terrestres), invertebrados (epifíticos, planctônicos e bentônicos) e peixes detritívoros adultos. A maioria das plantas vasculares pertenceu ao grupo fisiológico de plantas C3 (d13Cmédio= -29,5‰), com espécies C4 (d13Cmédio= -12,3‰) em menor abundância. Algas e detritos presentes nas amostras de epifíton e seston foram separados para análise isotópica por gradiente de densidade por centrifugação em solução de sílica coloidal. Os valores da razão C:Clor <100 de cada fração (leve e pesada) e de cada compartimento (epifítico e sestônico), indicaram as amostras relativamente puras em algas (MOPa = alga), cuja composição isotópica variou entre -34,5 e -26,9‰ (média ± dp = -29,3 ± 1,7‰) para d13C e entre -2,1 e 6,0‰ (média= 2,1 ± 2,0‰) para d15N. Não houve diferença significativa entre os valores de d13C de alga e plantas C3. O sinal de d13C de alga apresentou-se mais enriquecido (D13C= apenas -8,3‰) do que o de outras áreas de inundação tropicais da América do Sul, o que poderia ser resultado de uma limitação da disponibilidade do CO2 ou assimilação de ambas as fontes de CID (CO2 e/ou HCO3-). Valores baixos e negativos de d15N indicaram fixação de N2 por Cyanobacteria e os valores mais altos se devem, provavelmente, a fontes mais enriquecidas, como NH4+. Um claro padrão sazonal, relacionado ao ciclo hidrológico e às variações na disponibilidade de fontes inorgânicas, foi observado para alga (para ambos os isótopos), mostrando valores mais empobrecidos durante o período de enchente-cheia e o oposto na fase de vazante-seca, e que se refletiu na variação dos sinais de zooplâncton e de outros consumidores primários e secundários. Surpreendentemente, os valores de d13C dos consumidores primários foram muito mais empobrecidos do que os valores de alga, variando de -43 a -20‰ para d13C e de -2 a 12‰ para d15N. Estes resultados somente poderiam ser possíveis se uma fonte de carbono mais negativa, possivelmente bactérias metanotróficas, estivessem envolvidas, o que é reforçado pelos valores observados para os chironomídeos bentônicos (d13C= de -62 a -49‰; d15N= -5,3 a -0,8‰). Assim, o balanço de evidências sugere uma combinação de ambas as fontes autotróficas (foto e quimioautotróficas) sustentando as cadeias alimentares do Pantanal do rio Paraguai, com o ramo metanotrófico da alça microbiana sendo provavelmente um elo de ligação alternativo entre CH4 e o ciclo do carbono orgânico, diretamente para os níveis metazoários superiores. / The food web of the Pantanal wetland in Brazil was investigated during a complete hydrologic cycle (1998-99) using a multiple stable isotope approach (d13C and d15N) with the goal of identifying the primary carbon sources, which drive the system energy flux. The sampling was done in a representative marginal lake (Baía do Castelo) of Paraguay River floodplain and the sampled primary producers and consumers were algae (sestonic and epiphytic), vascular plants (emergent, submersed and terrestrial), invertebrates (epiphytic, planktonic and benthic), and mature detritivorous fish. The majority of vascular plants belonged to the physiological group of C3 plants (d13Cmean= -29.5‰), besides C4 species (d13Cmean= -12.3‰) with lower abundance. Algae and detritus from epiphyton and seston samples were separated for isotopic analysis by density gradient centrifugation in a colloidal silica solution. C:Chlor <100 ratio values (from both epiphytic and sestonic samples, light and heavy fractions), indicated relatively pure algae (POMa = algae) with signatures of -34.5 to -26.9‰ (mean ± SD = -29.3 ± 1.7‰) for d13C and -2.1 to 6.0‰ (mean= 2.1 ± 2.0‰) for d15N. There was no significant difference between d13C from algae and C3 plants. The d13C of algae was more enriched (D13C= only -8.3‰) than other tropical South American floodplains and could be a result from limiting of CO2 availability or uptaking both DIC sources (CO2 and/or HCO3-). Low and negative values of d15N denoted N2-fixing by Cyanobacteria and higher values were probably related to more enriched DIN sources, as NH4+. Clear seasonal pattern, related to the hydrologic cycle and variations of inorganic sources availability, was observed for algae (for both isotopes), showing more depleted values during rising-flood period and the opposite in the falling-dry, that reflected in the mixing zooplankton signals as well in the other primary and secondary consumers. Surprisingly the d13C values of the primary consumers were much more depleted than the values of the algae, ranging from -43 to -20‰ for d13C and from -2 to 12‰ for d15N. These results would only be possible if a more depleted source of carbon, possibly methanotrophic bacteria, were also involved, which is strengthened by the values of benthic chironomidae (d13C range= -62.4 to -49.4‰; d15N= -5.3 to -0.8‰). Thus the balance of evidence suggests a combination of both autotrophic sources (photo and chemoautotrophic) in sustaining the food webs of Pantanal wetland (mainly Pantanal of Paraguay river), with the methanotrophic branch of microbial loop being probably an alternative link between CH4 and organic carbon cycle directly through metazoan levels.

La vapeur d'eau atmosphérique joue un rôle clé dans le budget radiatif en Arctique, le cycle hydrologique et donc le climat. Mais sa mesure avec une précision reste un défi. La vapeur d'eau en Arctique se caractérise par une variabilité spatiale et temporelle qui n'est pas complètement comprise. Sa colonne atmosphérique total intégrée (TCWV) est étudiée dans cette thèse. Trois méthodes de mesures de la TCWV à distance sont testées et validées pour la région polaire. Cela inclut les mesures de TCWV aux bandes NIR/VIS/IR par les capteurs MODIS, SCIAMACHY, et AIRS embarqués sur satellites. Le cycle saisonnier de la TCWV à 19 stations polaires de référence est examiné suite à l'effet de la latitude, de la longitude en plus de l'effet continental/océanique. Les mesures utilisées ont été validées aux trois stations polaires via la comparaison à une base de données référentielle de TCWV convertis de retards de signaux GPS basés au sol. Les incertitudes et limites de mesures satellitaires sont évaluées par saison et par mois. Particulièrement, nous avons étudié l’effet de la présence de nuages sur les mesures des TCWV par satellites. Dans le NIR et dans le VIS, les mesures subissent une sensibilité accrues à la présence de nuages aux latitudes hautes en été. En plus, l’estimation de l’albédo est toujours un défi aux modèles d’inversion de la TCWV, surtout en présence de neige en régions cultivées. Suite aux résultats de la validation, la distribution et les tendances saisonnières de la TCWV au-dessus de toute l'Arctique ont été évalués via MODIS. Les tendances et anomalies accrues sont discutées principalement en réponse aux changements observés en Arctique au cours des 2001-2015 années, celles qui concernent la végétation, la couverture de neige, et la glace de mer. Les tendances accrues de la TCWV peuvent être liées à l’augmentation locale de surfaces vertes relative à la neige pendant les saisons transitoires. Des tendances augmentées de la TCWV étaient observables par MODIS, forcé par le réchauffement estival local pendant les vagues de chaleurs au temps de ciels clairs. Un déclin dramatique de la glace de mer près des côtes Sibériennes et de la cote du Beaufort a entraîné une augmentation locale observée de la TCWV en début d’automne. Une phase de réchauffement au niveau de l’archipel du Svalbard, persistant en toutes saisons sauf l’été, a entrainé également des quantités supplémentaires de la TCWV. La détection et justification de tendances est une tache toujours loin d’être accomplie. Les mesures en Arctique sont toujours en question, les mesures de la TCWV au-dessus de surfaces vertes en hiver, ou à travers du ciel nuageux en été sont des défis majeurs. / Atmospheric water vapour plays a key role in the Arctic radiation budget, hydrological cycle and hence climate, but its measurement with high accuracy remains an important challenge. Arctic water vapor is characterized by a spatial and temporal variability which is not completely understood yet. Its mass integrated in the atmospheric column (TCWV) is studied in this thesis. TCWV seasonal cycle at 18 polar stations is examined following the effect of latitude, longitude in addition to the continental effect. The measurements used in this thesis were validated at three polar stations, the satellites measurements of TCWV in the NIR/VIS/IR bands by MODIS/ SCIAMACHY/ AIRS sensors are compared to those obtained from ground based GPS signals delay. Their uncertainties and limitations are evaluated in season and month scales especially their sensitivities to the clouds presence. In NIR and VIS, the measurements undergo increased sensitivity to the presence of clouds at high latitudes in summer. In addition, albedo estimation is still a challenge to their TCWV inversion models, especially where canopies are snow-covered. Following the validation results, the distribution and seasonal trends of the TCWV over the entire Arctic was assessed via MODIS. Trends and anomalies are discussed mainly in response to changes in the Arctic vegetation, snow cover, and sea ice during 2001-2015. Increased trends in TCWV may be related to local increase of vegetated areas coincidently to snow cover decrease during transient seasons. Increased trends in TCWV were observed by MODIS, forced by local summer warming from many warm waves. A dramatic decline in sea ice near the Siberian and Beaufort coasts led to an observed local increase in TCWV in early fall. A warm-up phase in the Svalbard archipelago, persisting in all seasons except summer, also resulted in additional quantities of TCWV. The detection and justification of trends is a task still far from being accomplished. Arctic TCWV measurements are in question, TCWV measurements over green areas in winter, or through cloudy skies in summer are the major challenges.

Die Verdunstung ist die Klimaanlage der Erde. Sie verbindet den globalen Wasserkreislauf mit dem Energiekreislauf. Die Komponenten des Wasser- und Energiekreislaufs stehen für jeden Standort in einem dynamischen Gleichgewicht. Mit der Ausführung von Bauvorhaben wird in das Gleichgewicht eingegriffen. Entscheidend für die Beurteilung der Folgen für die Umwelt sind die langfristigen Auswirkungen. Diese können durch den Vergleich langjähriger mittlerer Jahresbilanzen vor und nach der Bebauung aufgezeigt werden. Bei der Genehmigung neuer Baugebiete müssen diese Auswirkungen ein Entscheidungskriterium werden, wenn der Eingriff in den Naturhaushalt so gering wie möglich gehalten werden soll. Nur die Betrachtung von einzelnen Starkregenereignissen ist nicht ausreichen. Von der Versiegelung der Oberflächen ist die Verdunstung in der Jahresbilanz stärker als die anderen Komponenten des Wasserkreislaufs betroffen. Trotzdem werden bisher bei der Planung neuer Baugebiete hauptsächlich der Oberflächenabfluss und in zunehmendem Maße die Versickerung untersucht. Die Reduzierung der Verdunstung wird zumeist vernachlässigt. Ursache für diese Reduzierung ist die fehlende Zwischenspeicherung des Wassers. Das wirkt sich direkt auf den Energiekreislauf aus, da die nicht für den Verdunstungsprozess benötigte Energie in den bodennahen Schichten bleibt. Im ersten Teil werden die Einflussfaktoren auf die Verdunstung erläutert und ein Überblick über die Berechnungsmethoden gegeben. Im zweiten Teil werden die Oberflächen unbebauter und bebauter Gebiete systematisiert und in Landnutzungsarten unterteilt. Für diese werden die hydrologischen und energetischen Eigenschaften und deren Auswirkungen auf den Wasser- und Energiehaushalt erläutert und die mittleren Jahresbilanzen berechnet. Die tatsächliche Verdunstung wird auf der Basis der Gras-Referenzverdunstung und der Landnutzungsart ermittelt. Ausgangswerte sind langjährige meteorologische Jahresmittelwerte. Die Verdunstung von Wasserflächen wird mit dem Temperaturgleichgewichtsverfahren berechnet. Mit den vorgestellten Verfahren können Einzugsgebiete von Bebauungsplangröße untersucht werden. Es werden Lösungen zur Beibehaltung eines möglichst hohen Verdunstungsanteils in bebauten Gebieten vorgeschlagen. Ansatzpunkt ist dabei stets die Zwi-schenspeicherung des Regenwassers. Am wirkungsvollsten sind dabei Dachbegrünungen, Wasserflächen und Bäume. Das Verfahren wird an zwei Beispielen angewandt - die Erschließung eines Industriegebietes auf einer vorher land- und forstwirtschaftlich genutzten Fläche in Treuen im Vogtland und der Neubau einer Untergrundstation im Zentrum der schwedischen Großstadt Malmö. / Evapotranspiration could be called the air-conditioner of the earth. It is connecting the water and the energy cycle. The components of the water and energy cycle are related to each other in a dynamic system. Urban development is interfering with this system. Changes of the water and energy balance resulting from construction can be calculated on the basis of long-standing annual average balances and compared with the balance in the catchment area before construction. Before granting building permission, the impacts on the water and energy balance should be evaluated in order to minimize interference with nature. Causing long-term impacts must be considered beforehand in planning. Coping only with design storm events does not suffice. Evaporation is more intensely affected by the paving of streets and squares and by constructing buildings then the other components of the water cycle. However, up to now, in the process of design and planning permission of new development areas, the focus is on runoff and, increasingly, on infiltration of rainwater. The large reduction of evaporation is mostly neglected. The reason for the reduction is the lack of buffer storage for water. Thus directly affects the energy cycle. Energy which is not used for evaporation remains in the near-ground layers. In the first part, the factors influencing evaporation are explained and an overview over the methods of calculation is given. In the second part all surfaces of urban and natural areas are systematized and subdivided into types of land use. The hydrological and energy properties as well as their effects on the water and energy balance are elucidated for this types of land use and their average annual balances are calculated. Solutions are presented for retaining in urban areas an evaporation rate as high as possible. Starting point hereby is always the buffer storage of rainwater. Most effective measures are the installation of rooftop greening, open water surfaces and trees. The calculations are performed on the basis of the FAO reference evaporation and the types of land use. Starting values are long-stand average annual meteorologic values. The evaporation of water surfaces is calculated with the temperature balance model. The method is applied to two examples showing the impacts of land use change on water and energy balance: the development of agricultural and forest land in Saxony into an industrial development site, and the impact of the construction of an underground station in the centre of the City Malmö, Sweden.

This study presents a detailed evaluation of long-term climatic data obtained from the meteorological station at Mokré louky wetland by Třeboň. A method for evaluation of dependence of air temperature on precipitation cycle is proposed and applied. The data from Mokré louky are compared with data from other meteorological stations in Czech Republic as well as in Europe and surroundings. The obtained results confirm a strong dependency of solar radiation reaching the Earth surface and dependently also the air temperature on the precipitation cycle. They represent in this way a fresh point of view on reasons for climate change, where the climate change is considered to be caused by a gradual decrease of permanent vegetation and current global desertification of continents.

Les dépôts saisonniers de glace de CO2 et de H2O jouent un rôle ma jeur dans le climat actuel de Mars. Leur cycle de condensation/sublimation contrôle en grande partie les variations de la pression atmosphérique et de l'humidité. Le but de cette thèse est d'apporter de nouvelles contraintes observationnelles aux interactions surface/atmosphère pendant la phase de retrait des dépôts saisonniers nord. A partir des données proche infrarouge de l'imageur hyperspectral OMEGA (Mars Express), l'extension des glaces saisonnières de CO2 et H2O a été cartographiée du solstice d'hiver au solstice d'été. Un anneau de glace d'eau entoure systématiquement les dépôts saisonniers riches en CO2 et constitue une source importante de vapeur d'eau lors de sa sublimation. Une couche de glace d'eau recouvre progressivement la glace de CO2 , résultat de deux processus : l'accumulation de la glace d'eau contenue dans la glace de CO2 et restant en surface lorsque le CO2 se sublime, et la condensation de vapeur d'eau issue de la sublimation de l'anneau de glace d'eau. Des remontées soudaines de la signature de la glace de CO2 sont observées dans les dépressions spirales et escarpements de la calotte permanente nord, et dans le champ de dunes circumpolaires, conséquence probable d'un renforcement ponctuel des vents catabatiques par le passage de systèmes dépressionnaires. Le résultat de ces processus dynamiques est une accumulation inhomogène de givre d'eau sur la calotte permanente nord au début de l'été qui participe à l'évolution actuelle de la calotte. La connaissance de la localisation des sources de vapeur d'eau et des interactions surface/atmosphère pendant l'hiver et le printemps nord permettra d'améliorer les modèles climatiques et notre compréhension du cycle actuel de l'eau sur Mars. / Seasonal CO2 and H2O ices play a ma jor role in the current climate of Mars. Their condensation/sublimation cycle largely control the variations of atmospheric pressure and humidity. The aim of this thesis is to provide new observational constraints to the surface/atmosphere interactions during the retreat of the northern seasonal deposits. Using near infrared hyperspectral images from the OMEGA instrument (Mars Express), the extent of the seasonal CO2 and H2 O ices was mapped from winter solstice to summer solstice. A water ice annulus systematically surrounds the CO2 -rich seasonal deposits. It is an important source of water vapor during its sublimation. A water ice layer progressively covers the CO2 ice. It results from two processes : accumulation of water ice grains previously embedded into CO2 ice and laying onto the surface while CO2 ice sublimes, and condensation of water vapor coming from the sublimating water ice annulus. Sudden increases of the CO2 ice signatures are observed in the spiral troughs and scarps of the North permanent cap and in the circumpolar dark dunes field. It probably results from an enhancement of the katabatic winds due to transient low pressure systems. These dynamical processes result in an inhomogeneous accumulation of water frost onto the North permanent cap at the beginning of summer which could play a role in the present evolution of the cap. Knowledge of the water vapor sources location and of the surface/atmosphere interactions during northern winter and spring will improve climate models and our understanding of the current water cycle on Mars.