This study concentrates on the disease and treatment cases of women in the Hippocratic texts, to identify and describe the Hippocratic medical style as one that, through its mode of practice, represents a significant departure in making the human body observable. As an antidote to a bias in the literature that has always made the male more visible, we chose to view Hippocrates&rsquo / s novel way of making the woman visible since, producing a new entity for observation, this style of practice led to the emergence of a new profession of medicine, gynecology. In this way, the &ldquo / white-armed&rdquo / women of ancient times were brought into the realm of the visible. Examination of the case histories in the corpus revealed that the observational style was used in light of two principles, that of nature as an active force, generally for healing, and water as a function and humor / both the nature and water concepts uniting the analytical and the metaphorical in a holistic way. The nature inspiration enables an ecological view of Hippocratic practice in such a way that later categories described by Kuhn as incommensurable are seen to function in interrelation. The theoretical trajectory therefore, involves a short survey which starts with Popper and follows through Kuhn, Lakatos, Feyerabend, and finally Crombie, with the latter&rsquo / s concept of &ldquo / styles of thinking&rdquo / which accounts for how habits of thought inform specific practices like Hippocratic gynecology.

In this thesis I searched for an Underground Man in Nietzsche and Marx. My search depends on an epistemological ascertainment. Kant&rsquo / s argument that the human mind cannot achieve knowledge of the thing-in-itself lies in the background of my thesis. I think that this argument is connected with the origins of modern philosophy. My thesis is concentrated on the 19th century. I perceived that with Kant&rsquo / s argument the fact that we can know this world within a subjective framework is emphasized especially in this century. The emphasis on a subjective framework is grounded on Kant&rsquo / s philosophy. This emphasis has a significant role in the epistemological arguments of Nietzsche and Marx. They also insist on the role of subjective contribution in knowledge. However their attitude towards epistemology is different from Kantian philosophy in that they emphasize social, historical and economical conditions. Thus, I call attention to the fact that they transpose epistemology into a social and historical context. My conception of the Underground Man is born in this social context. My thesis aims at making room for an analysis of the Underground Man who is conceived in opposition to the Kantian understanding of the subject, in the context of are Nietzsche&rsquo / s and Marx&rsquo / s social and epistemological analyses.

Uppsatsens syfte är att undersöka den syn på kunskap som förmedlas i läroböcker samt att diskutera denna syn utifrån hur lärare ser på sin användning av läromedel. Studien görs som en jämförande kvalitativ undersökning av sex läroböcker från två skilda tidsperioder, sekelskiftet 1900 samt sekelskiftet 2000. Den utgår från frågeställningar som om läroböckernas övergripande syfte skiljer sig mellan böckerna, vilken betydelse läroboken har för lärarnas arbete och om det går att se någon övergripande förändring i attityd till läroböcker. Med dessa frågeställningar som utgångspunkt genomförs en textanalys samt en enkätstudie. I textanalysen undersöks och diskuteras både tilltal och beskrivningar, innehåll och teman samt värderingar och attityder. Enkätstudien fokuserar på lärares användning av läroböcker och läromedel samt deras attityder gentemot det material som finns tillgängligt för undervisningen. Dessa båda delar diskuteras sedan utifrån ett kunskapsteoretiskt perspektiv. Bland annat diskuteras det urval av stoff som måste göras vid författandet och vem som bestämmer vad som är viktigt, vilken vikt kompletterande material ska ha i undervisningen samt om de krav på reflektion och kritiskt tänkande som vårt samhälle ställer behandlas korrekt. Slutsatser som kan dras av undersökningen är bland annat att diskussionen kring kunskapsbegreppet i läroböcker kan göras ur många perspektiv men att det är tydligt att en förändring har skett inom kunskapsförmedlingen, från encyklopedisk kunskap till en som kräver förståelse och reflektion.

The strong part of Horkheimer and Adorno&rsquo / s philosophy is their critique of the Enlightenment. They argue that the consequent of the Enlightenment has been the destruction of the Enlightenment itself. There are two main reasons in the background of this destruction. First of them is the destruction of individual because of the understanding of reason in the Enlightenment. Individuals cannot define their existence beyond the determined roles of society any more. The second reason is the certain distinction between the human beings and nature. The epistemology of the Enlightenment makes nature an object of knowledge and views the world as a summation of facts. This understanding makes subjects passive in providing the objectivity of knowledge. Accordingly, the subject is alienated from his or her knowledge. Horkheimer and Adorno&rsquo / s critical thinking provides possibility for the human autonomy. It tries to understand human beings and society in a dialectical process. It considers the relation between parts and the whole as a mutual relation. According to Horkheimer and Adorno, the relation between subject and object is neither an absolute duality nor an absolute unity.

THE FORMATION OF THE SELF AS MENTAL UNITY AND MORAL AGENCY IN HUME&rsquo / S PHILOSOPHY This dissertation proposes to analyze the stages in the formation of the idea of self in Hume&rsquo / s philosophy. According to Hume we have no a simple and individual impression that we can call the self &amp / #8722 / where the self is the totality of conscious life of a person. Nevertheless, we do have an idea of personal identity that must be accounted for. He begins his explanation of this idea by noting that our perceptions are fleeting, and he concludes from this that all we are is a bundle of different perceptions. But as a result of such a consideration Hume argues that he failed to find sufficient account for the relation between the idea of self involved in the indirect passions of pride and humility and the idea of self associated with its mental aspect. In this dissertation it is attempted to show that these two aspects of the self do not contradict, but rather they co-exist, and such a co-existence of the two aspects of the self should be recognised as an empirical fact. This means that the self is not a mere bundle of perceptions, but it is at least a very peculiar form of the relational unity of perceptions.

Philosophers of science have long realized that it is not possible to decide which scientific theory is true just by relying on their empirical adequacy. That theories should possess other virtues in order to be accepted by the scientific community is well understood. Nevertheless, empirical adequacy remained as having a privileged value among these virtues. In this thesis I argue that scientific theories are accepted or rejected on the bases of an evaluation of their degree of coherence. In such a coherentist understanding, empirical adequacy still plays some role. However, this is an egalitarian approach where observational reports have no special status. By means of case studies form history of science I provided reasons to think that this coherentist approach is better suited to understanding scientific change as a rational process.

In this thesis, I defend a non-egologic pure consciousness which is the initial position of Husserl in the Logical Investigations. There is anti transcendental ego argumentations in which I claim that self alienation of the &quot / transcendental ego&quot / , incomplete reduction, the presence of the pre-reflective transcendental ego are the reasons to leave the claim about the existence of the &quot / transcendental ego&quot / . I also claim that the possible solution of the mind-body problem depends on the denial of the &quot / transcendental ego&quot / in the frame of phenomenology. I defend the non-egologic pure consciousness which is not identical and reducible to whatever is material, including brain. Qualia, intentionality, intuition, philosophizing constitution acts of pure consciousness are used to support the claim about immaterial nature of non-egologic pure consciousness.

This thesis examines the ineliminable status of pluralism in contemporary sciences, especially in biology. Pluralism in science is endorsed to avoid loss of knowledge, unproductive debates and explanatory inflexibility while the plurality indicates the disunited nature of knowledge in some areas. The pluralist stance approach, as an epistemological stance, argues that it is possible to reduce modest forms of pluralism to sophisticated forms of monism. However, the pluralist stance is vulnerable to the monist challenge that today&rsquo / s science is incomplete and brings a sort of epistemological disorder to scientific territory. This thesis tries to answer the following question: is it more beneficial if a modest form of pluralism is adopted for a better scientific practice? Integrative pluralism as a type of modest pluralism can be as pragmatic as the pluralist stance, without seeking theoretical unification but advocating explanatory resolution for a better scientific conduct.

The purpose of this thesis is to elaborate on the Marx&rsquo / s theory of knowledge. Historical materialism presented in the German Ideology and the methodological remarks in Grundrisse have led to many discussions concerning the relation between knowledge and reality in Marx&rsquo / s philosophy. This thesis tried to explore the interrelationships between the kinds of knowledge we produce, abstract concepts and the concrete material conditions, as elaborated by Marx. In contrast to traditional epistemology, and more along the lines of Hegel&rsquo / s epistemology, Marx does not see theory and reality as belonging to two distinct spheres. This thesis endeavors to elucidate the terms abstract and concrete in Marx&rsquo / s usage and tries to make a clear Marx&rsquo / s relations to Hegel in light of these terms.

This study aims at investigating the problem of universals, which is one of the most venerable issues in the history of philosophy. The problem of universals emerges from the ontological status of properties and relations / i.e., the existence and nature of properties and relations. It can be defined as the problem of how two or more different objects can have the same property or how a property can be a part of different things. The problem of universals consists of not a single problem but rather a network of problems. The aim of this study is to reconsider the problem of universals which involves the three interrelated problems: ontological problem of predication, the linguistic problem of predication and the problem of abstract reference. Any adequate account for the problem of universals must deal with these problems. Nominalism, Trope theory, and Realism are three major theories that have proposed solutions to the problem of universals. In this study, these accounts have been discussed and it has been tried to reveal whether any of these accounts can deal with these problems. As a conclusion, this study proposes that among the theories that try to deal with the problem of ontological predication and the problem of abstract reference, only Object-Trope theory and Armstrong&rsquo / s Realism have been successful. However, Object-Trope theory is found to be a bit more superior to Armstrong&rsquo / s Realism when Ockham&rsquo / s razor is appealed to.