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The purpose of the study is to set forth a framework for the research of spatio-environmental factors on the experience of time duration. A literature survey considers the nature of the experience of time as well as the research that has been carried out on different factors in the experience of time duration. The survey also considers different categories of the spatio-environmental realm and how the realm is experienced through the sensory system. Particular attention is directed in the primary hypothesis toward the possible influence of the spatio-environmental factor of complexity, especially visual complexity. Exploratory testing of complexity used 24 college students performing duration estimates with the Production method viewing scale models of different complexity of wall surface and pattern. A secondary aspect of the study is to find support for the possible application of the primary hypothesis to the field of architecture. One undesirable experience of time duration, boredom, is studied in greater detail. Literature support is found for the relationship between boredom and decreased sense input, with decreased perceived visual complexity an example of decreased sense input. The susceptibility of the elderly to decreased sense input is considered, pointing to a possible increased susceptibility of the elderly to certain types of boredom. The scale model testing was modified with a glass screen to simulate decreased visual input, and the relationship between decreased visual input and duration estimation was analyzed for support of the secondary hypothesis. Tests for both hypotheses failed to provide confirmation but offer helpful guidance for future tests. / M. Arch.

<p dir="ltr">Timing and time perception is essential to humans, whose lives and biology are organized around clocks. From the simple give-and-take of conversation to understanding cause and effect, individuals rely on accurate time perception to successfully complete tasks and organize their lives. However, accurate time perception is vulnerable to all manner of influence, from both internal and external sources, including affect. A robust body of literature suggests that negative affect is positively associated with time dilation, or subjective lengthening of time, whereas positive affect is positively associated with time constriction, or subjective shortening of time. Collectively, these are known as time distortion, which has been preliminarily linked to increased impairment in anxiety, depression, and BPD. However, this literature features two key limitations. First, researchers have mostly examined time perception as an objective measure, through the use of measures such as the temporal bisection tasks, which limits our understanding of the subjective experience of time distortion and how it may contribute to psychopathology. Second, across studies, time perception is most often studied as an outcome, rather than examining the role of time perception in predicting affective change, i.e., contextualizing the role of time distortion in clinically-relevant research questions. The current project aimed to address these gaps in the literature through two studies which examined (1) the roles of brief affect and time perception manipulations on affective change and subjective time perception in an online study (Study 1) and (2) the effect of a longer time perception manipulation on affective change during an in-person experimental protocol (Study 2).</p><p dir="ltr">Across studies, participants included a community-based sample of U.S. adults over age 18 and two separate undergraduate samples recruited from introductory psychology courses at Purdue University. In Study 1, the final sample size exceeded 750 and was comprised of community-based and undergraduate participants. Online participants reported on dispositional levels of clinical measures [e.g., rumination, borderline personality disorder (BPD) features] and then completed an experimental protocol with brief mood and time perception manipulations while repeatedly reporting on their negative affect. Results suggested that the time perception manipulation was not effective, but that across the protocol, negative affect rose and positive affect decreased. Further, participants reported overall that time seemed to be passing by slower than usual during the protocol. These findings informed the design of Study 2, which lengthened the time perception manipulation and eliminated the mood induction component in order to address the more basic question of whether time perception manipulation influences mood, particularly during neutral cognitive tasks.</p><p dir="ltr">One hundred and twenty-seven undergraduate participants completed Study 2. As in Study 1, participants filled out self-report surveys about dispositional symptoms of psychopathology (e.g., rumination, emotion dysregulation, and symptoms associated with BPD, depression, and anxiety) before completing an experimental protocol which included a manipulated clock (accelerated or control clock), three runs of a modified Erkisen flanker task, and repeated measures of negative and positive affect. Primary results suggested that the time perception manipulation was successful but that the influence of time distortion was more nuanced than hypothesized. Specifically, individuals with elevated clinical symptoms exhibited lower rating of negative and positive affect levels in the accelerated clock condition, compared to individuals endorsing low symptoms, who reported higher positive affect and higher negative affect in the accelerated clock condition.</p><p dir="ltr">Altogether, the results across studies highlight the complexity of time perception in influencing affect and help provide foundational information regarding the empirical convergence between cognitive and clinical phenomena.</p>

No / When formulating an estimate of event time, the human sensory system has been shown to possess a degree of perceptual flexibility. Specifically, the perceived relative timing of auditory and visual stimuli is, to some extent, a product of recent experience. It has been suggested that this form of sensory recalibration may be peculiar to the audiovisual domain. Here we investigate how adaptation to sensory asynchrony influences the perceived temporal order of audiovisual, audiotactile and visuotactile stimulus pairs. Our data show that a brief period of repeated exposure to asynchrony in any of these sensory pairings results in marked changes in subsequent temporal order judgments: the point of perceived simultaneity shifts toward the level of adaptation asynchrony. We find that the size and nature of this shift is very similar in all three pairings and that sensitivity to asynchrony is unaffected by the adaptation process. In light of these findings we suggest that a single supramodal mechanism may be responsible for the observed recalibration of multisensory perceived time.

No / Our sensory systems face a daily barrage of auditory and visual signals whose arrival times form a wide range of audiovisual asynchronies. These temporal relationships constitute an important metric for the nervous system when surmising which signals originate from common external events. Internal consistency is known to be aided by sensory adaptation: repeated exposure to consistent asynchrony brings perceived arrival times closer to simultaneity. However, given the diverse nature of our audiovisual environment, functionally useful adaptation would need to be constrained to signals that were generated together. In the current study, we investigate the role of two potential constraining factors: spatial and contextual correspondence. By employing an experimental design that allows independent control of both factors, we show that observers are able to simultaneously adapt to two opposing temporal relationships, provided they are segregated in space. No such recalibration was observed when spatial segregation was replaced by contextual stimulus features (in this case, pitch and spatial frequency). These effects provide support for dedicated asynchrony mechanisms that interact with spatially selective mechanisms early in visual and auditory sensory pathways.

No / The task of deciding how long sensory events seem to last is one that the human nervous system appears to perform rapidly and, for sub-second intervals, seemingly without conscious effort. That these estimates can be performed within and between multiple sensory and motor domains suggest time perception forms one of the core, fundamental processes of our perception of the world around us. Given this significance, the current paucity in our understanding of how this process operates is surprising. One candidate mechanism for duration perception posits that duration may be mediated via a system of duration-selective 'channels', which are differentially activated depending on the match between afferent duration information and the channels' 'preferred' duration. However, this model awaits experimental validation. In the current study, we use the technique of sensory adaptation, and we present data that are well described by banks of duration channels that are limited in their bandwidth, sensory-specific, and appear to operate at a relatively early stage of visual and auditory sensory processing. Our results suggest that many of the computational principles the nervous system applies to coding visual spatial and auditory spectral information are common to its processing of temporal extent.

Yes / Accurate time perception is critical for a number of human behaviours, such as understanding speech and the appreciation of music. However, it remains unresolved whether sensory time perception is mediated by a central timing component regulating all senses, or by a set of distributed mechanisms, each dedicated to a single sensory modality and operating in a largely independent manner. To address this issue, we conducted a range of unimodal and cross-modal rate adaptation experiments, in order to establish the degree of specificity of classical after-effects of sensory adaptation. Adapting to a fast rate of sensory stimulation typically makes a moderate rate appear slower (repulsive after-effect), and vice versa. A central timing hypothesis predicts general transfer of adaptation effects across modalities, whilst distributed mechanisms predict a high degree of sensory selectivity. Rate perception was quantified by a method of temporal reproduction across all combinations of visual, auditory and tactile senses. Robust repulsive after-effects were observed in all unimodal rate conditions, but were not observed for any cross-modal pairings. Our results show that sensory timing abilities are adaptable but, crucially, that this change is modality-specific - an outcome that is consistent with a distributed sensory timing hypothesis.

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) is a collective name for diagnoses such as ADHD, ASD/Autism, Tourette’s syndrome and language disorders. A child with these diagnoses has different deficits that can be divided into the following problem areas; Social interaction, Learning difficulties, Memory and motor skills, and Concentration difficulties. In order for these children to cope with their everyday lives, they need support in the form of assistive aid products or human care. This investigative work has been done in collaboration with Komikapp AB and focused on developing a product within the assistive technology industry. The goal was to design an assistive aid for children with NDD diagnoses that offers increased school performance. The work was planned through the design processes Double Diamond process and Design Thinking process and is placed within the framework of Eco Design. The project was initiated with literature studies on the different diagnoses together with what products were available on the current market. From the background research, conclusions could be drawn that the products were often considered to be large and bulky, stationary, non-discreet and had a childish appearance. It could also be stated that appreciated products were fidget toys that stimulate the user through tactile senses, such as stress balls. In addition, the product aid market for older children, those in their adolescence, was small. The decision was made to narrow down the target group for children in the higher stages of Swedish comprehensive school and that the problem area for the work should be focused on Concentration difficulties. The investigation was followed by a questionnaire sent to people who work or have worked within the teaching profession. Moreover, in-depth interviews were conducted with a principal at an NDD-adapted higher-stage school, an occupational therapist at Stockholm’s ADHD centre and five teaching assistants. After all the information was gathered, brainstorming methods were used to break down the chosen problem area, Concentration difficulties. A smaller subgroup to the problem area was observed and assumed to benefit the work from a course goal perspective. The new niche problem area was Time perception. Based on this choice, further market research was carried out on aids in the category of time perception. This was followed by ideation, which produced five concepts. Three of these were taken for further development after an evaluation. Common to all concepts was that the product would help the user perceive time by showing time, date and day as well as having features to set alarms and timers with a visual explanation of the remaining time. After workshops with three people in professions that deal with NDD diagnoses on a daily basis, and two design engineering students, the Flexitime concept was chosen. This concept was the watch that offered a discreet design and an option to also include a fidget function. The detailed design of the Flexitime watch began and further market research was done on today’s range of smartwatches. A survey was also sent out to young people between the ages of 12-16 to gain an understanding of what kind of design attracts the target group. The survey received 39 respondents and a 50/50 gender split which laid the foundation for the design methods used to achieve the exterior design. The watch’s inner design and user scenarios were designed for a final design proposal. The fidget feature and the navigation to set timers or to turn on/off the sound of the watch were determined. The final design proposal for the assistive product Flexitime was a discreet, user-friendly, simple watch designed for teenagers to use into adulthood. The watch had not only features to help the user understand and perceive time, but a fidget feature to tame restless fingers. The dial for navigating the watch’s menu also offered the ability to rotate freely and generate tactile stimulation through its structure. This investigative work and the final design proposal for Flexitime form a basis for further work. / Neuropsykiatriska funktionsnedsättningar (NPF) är ett samlingsnamn för diagnoser som ADHD, AST/Autism, Tourettes syndrom och språksvårigheter. Ett barn med dessa diagnoser har olika svårigheter som kan delas in efter följande problemområden; Social interaktion, Inlärningssvårigheter, Minne och motorik samt Koncentrationssvårigheter. För att dessa barn ska klara av sin vardag behöver de stöd i form av hjälpmedelsprodukter eller mänsklig vård. Detta utredningsarbete har gjorts i samarbete med Komikapp AB och fokuserats på framtagning av en produkt inom hjälpmedelsbranschen. Målet var att designa ett hjälpmedel för barn med NPF diagnoser som erbjuder en ökad prestation i skolan. Arbetet projekterades genom designprocesserna Double Diamond processen samt Design Thinking processen och placerar sig inom ramen för Eco Design. Projektet inleddes med litteraturundersökningar för de olika diagnoserna samt vilka produkter som finns för dessa på marknaden idag. Från bakgrundsinsamlingen kunde slutsatser dras om att produkterna ansågs ofta vara stora och klumpiga, stationära, ha ett barnsligt utseende och icke-diskreta. Det kunde också konstateras att produkter som uppskattades var pillerillprodukter som stimulerar användaren genom taktila sinnen som exempelvis stressbollar. Dessutom var utbudet för äldre barn, tonåringar, litet. Beslutet togs att målgruppen skulle avsmalnas till barn i högstadieåldern och att problemområdet för arbetet ska fokuseras på Koncentrationssvårigheter. Utredningen fortsatte genom utskick av frågeformulär till personer som jobbar eller tidigare har jobbat inom läraryrket samt djupa intervjuer med en rektor på en NPF anpassad högstadieskola, en terapeut på Stockholms ADHD-center och 5 lärarassistenter. Efter all informationsinsamling användes brainstorm metoder för att bryta ner det valda problemområdet, Koncentrationssvårigheter. En mindre subgrupp under problemområdet observerades och antogs gynna arbetet utifrån ett kursmål-perspektiv. Det nya nischade problemområdet var Tidsuppfattning. Utifrån detta val gjordes ytterligare marknadsundersökningar på hjälpmedel i kategorin tidsuppfattning. Därefter följde en idegenerering som frambringade fem koncept. Tre av dessa togs till vidareutveckling efter en utvärdering. Gemensamt för alla koncept var att produkten skulle hjälpa användaren uppfatta tiden genom att ange tid, datum och dag samt ha funktionerna att ställa alarm och timers med bildlig förklaring av kvarstående tid. Efter workshops med tre personer inom yrken som dagligen handskas med NPF diagnoser, och två designingenjörs-studenter valdes konceptet Flexitime. Detta koncept var armbandsuret som erbjöd en diskret design och möjlighet till att även inkludera en pillerillfunktion. Den detaljerade designen av klockan Flexitime påbörjades och ytterligare marknadsundersökningar gjordes på dagens utbud av smartwatches. Även en enkät skickades ut ungdommar mellan 12-16 år för att få en förståelse av vad för design som attraherar målgruppen. Enkäten fick 39 respondenter och en 50/50 könsfördelninng vilket la grunden för de designmetoder som användes för att nå den utvändiga designen. Klockans inre funktioner och användarscenarion designades för ett slutgiltigt designförslag. Pillerillfunktionen samt navigeringen, för att stänga av/sätta på klockans ljud och ställa timers, bestämdes. Det slutgiltiga designförslaget på hjälpmedelsprodukten Flexitime var en diskret, användarvänlig, simpel klocka designad för tonåringar att använda upp till vuxenåldern. Klockan hade inte bara funktioner för att hjälpa användaren förstå och uppfatta tiden, utan även en pillerillfunktion för att tämja rastlösa fingrar. Ratten för att navigera i klockans meny erbjöd även möjligheten att rotera fritt och generera taktil stimulering genom dess struktur. Detta utredningsarbete och det slutgiltiga designförslaget på Flexitime utgör en god grund till fortsatt arbete.

The experiments reported within this thesis use psychophysical techniques to examine the factors which determine perceived multisensory timing in humans. Chapters 1 and 2 describe anatomical and psychophysical features of temporal processing, respectively, whilst Chapter 3 introduces the reader to psychophysical methods. Chapter 4 examines the relationship between two measures of sensory latency, reaction time (RT) and crossmodal temporal order judgment (TOJ). Despite task and attentional manipulations the two measures do not correlate, suggesting that they measure some fundamentally different aspect(s) of temporal perception. Chapter 5 examines the effects of adaptation to asynchronous stimulus pairs on perceived audiovisual (AV), audiotactile (AT) and visuotactile (VT) temporal order. Significant temporal shifts are recorded in all three conditions. Evidence is also presented showing that crossmodal TOJs are intransitive. Chapter 6 shows that concurrent adaptation to two sets of asynchronous AV stimulus pairs causes perceived AV temporal order to recalibrate at two locations simultaneously, and that AV asynchrony adaptation effects are significantly affected by observers' attention during adaptation. Finally, Chapter 7 shows that when observers are accustomed to a physical delay between motor actions and sensory events, an event presented at a reduced delay appears to precede the causative motor action. The data are well-described by a simple model based on a strong prior assumption of physical synchrony between motor actions and their sensory consequences.