O presente trabalho avaliou a degradação anaeróbia de tolueno por Bactérias Redutoras de Sulfato (BRS), utilizando como inóculo lodo anaeróbio proveniente de reator UASB. Os ensaios foram realizados com reatores em batelada de 2300 mL contendo meio de cultura específico para o crescimento de BRS. No ensaio de enriquecimento, com lactato de sódio (2230 mg/L) e acetato de sódio (670 mg/L) na ausência de tolueno, ocorreu consumo total de sulfato (aproximadamente 1070 mg/L) em 192 horas e percentual de metano de 31% em 72 horas. A degradação do tolueno foi realizada em reatores sulfetogênicos e metanogênicos. Nos reatores sulfetogênicos alimentados com 2,1 mg/L e 7,7 mg/L houve degradação total do tolueno em 264 e 792 horas, respectivamente. Nesses reatores foi observado consumo total de sulfato e percentual de metano de aproximadamente 20,9%. Nos reatores metanogênicos a degradação do tolueno foi de, no máximo, 53%, e percentual de metano de 27,3% em 1032 horas. Nas condições sulfetogênicas, a degradação do tolueno foi mais rápida se comparada às condições metanogênicas. E em ambas as condições, a produção de metano foi relacionada aos bacilos hidrogenotróficos. As alterações na diversidade da população microbiana presente nos reatores, observadas em microscopia ótica, foram confirmadas nas análises por biologia molecular. / The present work evaluated the anaerobic degradation of toluene by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB), using anaerobic sludge from reactor UASB as inoculum. The essays were accomplished in batch reactors of 2300 mL containing specific culture medium for the growth of SRB. In the enrichment essay with sodium lactate (2230 mg/L) and sodium acetate (670 mg/L) without toluene accured total consumption of sulfate (approximately 1070 mg/L) in 192 hours and percentile of methane of 31% in 72 hours. The toluene degradation it was accomplished in sulfetogenics and methanogenics reactors. In the sulfetogenics reactors fed with 2,1 mg/L and 7,7 mg/L there was total degradation of toluene in 264 and 792 hours, respectively. In those reactors it was observed total consumption of sulfate and percentile of methane of approximately 20.9%. In the methanogenic reactors the degradation of toluene was to the utmost of 53%, accompanied of production of 27.3% of methane in 1032 hours. In the sulfetogenics conditions, the degradation of tolueno was faster if compared to the methanogenic conditions. In both conditions, the methane production was related to the hidrogenotrophic bacilli. The alterations in the diversity of the microbial population present in the reactors, observed by optic microscopy, were confirmed in the analysis by molecular biology.

Orientador: Iracilda Zeppone Carlos / Resumo: A esporotricose é uma micose subcutânea emergente que acomete animais e humanos, causada por espécies patogênicas do fungo Sporothrix schenckii senso lato. A doença, distribuída em todo o mundo, é mais freqüente na América Latina e países como Brasil, Uruguai, Peru e Colômbia constituem áreas endêmicas. No Brasil, a doença tornou-se um problema de saúde em razão do aumento de casos, manifestando-se com uma intrigante transmissão zoonótica por gatos. Os fatores ambientais extremos modificam a fisiologia dos microrganismos, permitindo sua sobrevivência e induzendo mudanças na virulência dos fungos patógenos com incidência direta no sistema imune. O tolueno encontra-se dentre os principais contaminantes dos solos como consequencia dos derramamentos de gasolinas, resíduos da indústria, dentre outras fontes de poluição, porém, o efeito deste contaminante sobre a virulência do fungo S. schenckii ainda não foi elucidado. Neste estudo foi avaliado o crescimento e a virulência de S. schenckii quando exposto ao tolueno. O fungo sobreviveu a 0,01 e 0,10% (vol/vol) de tolueno, sendo a população reduzida até 17,5 e 5,4%, respectivamente. O consumo de tolueno na concentração 0,01% mostrou uma redução de 26% após 48 horas. As enzimas superóxido dismutase e catalase nos fungos expostos ao tolueno foram altamente expressas, o qual permitiu uma maior remoção das espécies reativas de oxigênio intracelular nos fungos expostos, e uma menor sensibilidade à exposição de H2O2 sendo que resistiram at... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Doutor

L’objectif de cette étude était d’améliorer les performances de séparation OSN de membranes commerciales en vue d’applications en métathèse dans laquelle des catalyseurs hautement dilués sont utilisés. Dans ce travail, des membranes polymères commerciales ont d'abord été étudiée pour caractériser leurs performances dans des milieux organiques en utilisant des mélanges binaires très dilués solute-solvant. Sur la base d'une revue de la littérature, il a été montré que la membrane PERVAP4060, dont le PDMS est la couche active dense était un candidat prometteur pour la nanofiltration milieu organique (OSN). En tant que membrane poreuse, les supports commerciaux AMS et PAN ont également été pris en compte. Dans cette étude, nous avons considéré la modification sur la surface pour conserver les propriétés de matrice polymère. Les multicouches de plasma Ar/O2 et/ou de polyélectrolytes ont été utilisées pour la préparation de membranes prototypes. Les membranes non modifiées et modifiées ont été testées dans des conditions OSN en utilisant des mélanges d'alimentation biniares. Plusieurs solutés très dilués, le ligand organophosphoré R-BINAP, un catalyseur de transfert de phase (ToABR) et des alcanes linéaires ont été étudiés. Le R-BINAP et le ToABR ont tous deux été utilisés dans la plage de 0,0001 à 0,5% en masse et la plupart des expériences ont été réalisées ensuite avec des concentrations de 0,05% en masse de soluté dans le toluène. Il a été montré que le PDMS était capable de retenir 80% de R-BINAP et environ 93% de ToABr dans du toluène. Après modification par les dépôt LBL, le taux de rejet est amélioré avec les membranes modifiées PERVAP4060, conduisant à une rétention de 88% du R-BINAP avec un dépôt de 10 bicouches de polyélectrolytes PAH / PSS en surface, ce taux de rejet pouvant atteindre 95% lorsque le nombre de bicouches est de 20. Le taux de rejet de ToABr augmente à 97%. Les performances de la membrane ont été étudiées sous différentes pressions comprises entre 1 et 40 bars; le haut rejet, encore observé dans ces conditions OSN, plaide résolument en faveur d'un mécanisme de transfert de type solution-diffusion à travers le PDMS. On a également étudié le traitement des mélanges ternaires mimant le mélange catalyseur / solutés / solvant, correspondant à l'hydroformylation ; aucun signe de couplage n’a été détectée et le taux rejet du soluté de masse molaire la plus forte est resté inchangé. D'autre part, l'amélioration du taux de rejet a également observée à partir des membranes poreuses après modification. Le taux de rétention du C44 dans l'AMS a été atteint 75% après modification par 10 bicouches de PDDA / PSS, alors qu’il n'était que de 25% avant modification. Dans le PAN modifié, le taux de rejet des solutés obtenus est dans la plage de 37 à 50%, alors qu’il n'était que de 3 à 7% en masse avant modification. L'inconvénient de la membrane poreuse est toutefois la forte diminution du flux après le dépôt des couches multiples. / The objective of this study was to improve the OSN separation performance of commercial membranes for metathesis applications in which highly diluted catalysts are used. In this work, commercial polymeric membranes were first studied to characterize their performance in organic media using very dilute solute-solvent binary mixtures. Based on a literature review, it was shown that the PERVAP4060 membrane, of which PDMS is the dense active layer, was a promising candidate for organic solvent nanofiltration (OSN). As a porous membrane, the AMS and PAN commercial supports have also been taken into account. In this study, we considered the modification on the surface to improve the separation properties of polymeric OSN membranes. Ar/O2 plasma and/or polyelectrolytes multilayers were used for the preparation of new prototype membranes. Unmodified and modified membranes were tested under OSN conditions using binary feed mixtures. Several highly dilute solutes, organophosphorus ligand R-BINAP, phase transfer catalyst ToABR, and linear alkanes have been studied. Both R-BINAP and ToABR were used in the range of 0.0001 to 0.5% by weight, and most experiments were subsequently performed with 0.05% solute concentrations in toluene. It has been shown that PDMS can retain 80% R-BINAP and about 93% ToABr in toluene. After modification by the LBL deposition, the rejection is improved with the modified PERVAP4060 membranes, leading to an 88% rejection of R-BINAP with a deposit of 10 PAH / PSS polyelectrolyte bilayers at the surface and this rejection being able to reach 95% when the number of bilayers is 20. ToABr rejection increases to 97% with the ten bilayered membranes. The performance of the membrane was studied under different pressures of between 1 and 40 bar; the high rejection, still observed in these OSN conditions, strongly supports a solution-diffusion transfer mechanism through the PDMS. The treatment of ternary mixtures mimicking the catalyst/solute/ solvent mixture corresponding to the hydroformylation has also been studied; no evidence of coupling was detected, and the highest retention remained unchanged. On the other hand, the improvement of the rejection also observed from the porous membranes after modification. The rejection of C44 in the AMS was reached 75% after modification by tention10 bilayers of PDDA / PSS, whereas it was only 25% before modification. In the modified PAN, the rejection of the solutes obtained is in the range of 37 to 50%, whereas it was only 3 to 7% by weight before modification. The disadvantage of the porous membrane, however, is the sharp decrease in flux after the deposition of the multiple layers.

In risk assessment of risk chemicals, variability in susceptibility in the population is an important aspect. The health hazard of a pollutant is related to the internal exposure to the chemical, i.e. the target dose, rather than the external exposure. The target dose may be calculated by physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling. Furthermore, variability in target dose may be estimated by introducing variability in the physiological, anatomical, and biochemical parameters of the model. Data on these toxicokinetic model parameters may be found in the scientific literature. Since the early seventies, a large number of experimental inhalation studies of the kinetics of several volatiles in human volunteers have been performed at the National Institute for Working Life in Solna. To this day, only very limited analyses of these extensive data have been performed. A Bayesian analysis makes it possible to merge a priori knowledge from the literature with the information in experimental data. If combined with population PBPK modeling, the Bayesian approach may yield posterior estimates of the toxicokinetic parameters for each subject, as well as for the population. One way of producing these estimates is by so-called Markov-chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation. The aim of the thesis was to apply the MCMC technique on previously published experimental data. Another objective was to assess the reliability of PBPK models in general by the combination of the extensive data and Bayesian population techniques. The population kinetics of methyl chloride, dichloromethane, toluene and styrene were assessed. The calibrated model for dichloromethane was used to predict cancer risk in a simulated Swedish population. In some cases, the respiratory uptake of volatiles was found to be lower than predicted from reference values on alveolar ventilation. The perfusion of fat tissue was found to be a complex process that needs special attention in PBPK modeling. These results provide a significant contribution to the field of PBPK modeling of risk chemicals. Appropriate statistical treatment of uncertainty and variability may increase confidence in model results and ultimately contribute to an improved scientific basis for the estimation of occupational health risks.

Bilayers formed by molecules that possess long alkyl hydrophobic tails are ubiquitous in the natural world manifesting both in biological systems as well as in chemistry. The lipid bilayer is an integral feature of cell membranes of living systems with functions that are of critical importance to the life of the cell. Long chain amphiphilic surfactant molecules can be introduced within the interlamellar region of layered inorganic host lattices to form anchored alkyl chainbilayerswithinthegalleries.Theintercalatedbilayerbearsastriking resemblance to lipid bilayers. However, unlike lipid bilayers where individual molecules can undergo lateral diffusion and also flip-flop between layers the anchored bilayer is characterized by the total absence of translational mobility. The degrees of freedom of the alkyl chains of the anchored bilayer are restricted to changes in conformation. This thesis describes a detailed investigation of the anchored bilayer formed by the intercalation of the anionic surfactant dodecyl sulphate (DDS) in a layered solid, Mg-Al Layered Double Hydroxide(Mg-AlLDH) using both experimental measurements and Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations (Chapter 2). The thesis is organized as two parts. The first (Chapters 2 -4) deals with the anchored bilayer in the condensed phase -the conditions for the formation of the bilayer arrangement of the intercalated surfactant chains and the conformation and dynamics of the alkyl chains of the surfactant in the galleries of the layered solid. The surfactant intercalated Mg-AlLDH-DDS may be delaminated in nonpolar solvents to give colloidal dispersions of individual Mg-Al LDH sheets with the DDS surfactant chains remaining tethered to the inorganic sheets(Scheme 1).The second part of thesis(Chapters 5 -9)describe studies on the dispersions of the Mg-AlLDH-DDS in toluene. A summary of the results of the of the investigations of the anchored bilayer, formed by the intercalation of DDS ions in Mg-Al LDH, in the condensed and the dispersed phases is presented in the concluding chapter(Chapter10). Layered Double Hydroxides(LDH) are insulating lamellar solids of the general chemical formula[M’(1-x) Mx(OH)2], where M’ is a divalent metal ion and M a trivalent ion. Their structure may be derived from that of Brucite, Mg(OH)2, by isomorphous substitution of apart of the Mg2+ by trivalent ions like Al3+ with electrical neutrality maintained by interlamellar exchangeable ions. The studies reported in this thesis are on an Mg-Al LDH,Mg(1−x)Alx(OH)2, x ranging from 0.17 to 0.37. Dodecyl sulphate surfactant ions have been ion-exchange intercalated in Mg-AlLDH (Chapter 3). By varying the Mg-Al ratio, differing packing densities of the surfactant chains in the interlamellar space of the Mg-Al LDH-DDS are realized. At high packing densities the alkyl chains of the intercalated dodecyl sulphate ions anchored on opposing Mg-Al LDH sheets are arranged as bilayers while at lower packing densities the surfactant chains form a monolayer with the chains oriented flat in the galleries. This composition driven monolayer to bilayer transformation in the surfactant intercalated Mg-AlLDH-DDS is also reproduced by MD simulations. The simulations also indicate that there are profound differences in the factors that decide the arrangement of the surfactant chains. In the bilayer arrangement it is dispersive van der Waals interactions between the chains in opposing layers that is responsible for the cohesive energy of the solid whereas at lower packing densities, where a monolayer arrangement is favored, Coulomb interactions between the positively charged Mg-Al LDH sheets and the negatively charged head-group of the DDS anion dominate. The conformation and dynamics of the alkyl chains of the intercalated surfactant chains in both the monolayer and bilayer arrangements as well as the effect of packing density on these parameters is reported in Chapter 4. The conformation was studied using spectroscopic techniques, infra-red, Raman and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) while the dynamics by Variable Contact Time Cross Polarization Magic Angle Spinning(VCT -CPMAS) and2DWidelineSeparation(2DWiSe)NMR techniques. The results showed the expected trends; the concentration of gauche defects and the dynamics of the chains increase with decreasing packing density. There is, however a sharp increase in the gauche concentration and conformational mobilities of the intercalated surfactant chains associated with the bilayer to monolayer transformation. The results of the MD simulations, too, reflect these trends. The second part of thesis describes the delamination of the intercalated anchored bilayer (Mg-AlLDH-DDS) in non-polar solvents. Delamination results in a colloidal dispersion Of the anchored bilayer, isolated Mg-AlLDH sheets with the DDS chains tethered to them, as neutral nanosheets of nanometer thickness and micron size. With increasing concentration of the anchored bilayers in the solvent a gel state is realized. The sol to gel transformation of the dispersions of the anchored bilayer in toluene has been investi-gated. Frequency dependent rheology measurements (Chapter6) were used to investigate the visco-elastic properties of the dispersions and Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) measurements(Chapter 7) to understand the structure and shape of the nanosheets. The rheology experiments showed that the dispersions irrespective of their concentrations showed shear thinning. The SAXS results indicate a tactoid structure of the dispersions as well as in the gel phase. At higher concentrations, the X-ray scattering curves indicated that the layers stack loosely with an interlamellar space of ~ 39 Å , a value much larger than the interlayer lattice spacing of solid Mg-AlLDH-DDS( ~ 27 Å). The nature of interactions between solvent molecules and the anchored DDS chains were probed by 1Hand 2H NMR measurements(Chapter8). A clear association between the toluene molecules and the alkyl chains of the anchored surfactant was observed. 2D NOESY experiments established that there are toluene molecules in close proximity that interact with the methyl tail of the anchored surfactant. NMR measurements were also able to distinguish two types of solvent molecules based on their widely differing mobilities. MD simulations(Chapter9)of the dispersed anchored bilayer are able to reproduce the essential features of the experimental observations including the formation of a loosely bound lamellar structure. It also provides an explanation on how the spectroscopic observation of motional heterogeneity gives rise to the viscoelastic properties of the dispersed anchored bilayer.

There is a continuing interest in the subject of arene carbonylation, especially in strong acids and environmentally-benign alternatives are sought to HF/BF3 and to AlCl3 as conversion agents. Ionic liquids offer a powerful solvent for useful conversion agents such as aluminum chloride. The ILs permit AlCl3 to be used at lower HCl partial pressures than with other solvents. The superior reactivity demonstrated by acidic, chloroaluminate ILs is probably due to their enhanced solvation power for HCl and CO. Addition of HCl gas increased reactivity of the system by forming Brnsted acids, and toluene carbonylation is a Brnsted demanding reaction. It was found that reaction is stoichiometric in Al species and only intrinsically acidic ILs are active for toluene carbonylation, therefore it was possible to correlate observed conversion with predicted amounts of Lewis + Brnsted acids. Molecular modeling provided information about the different species present in these ILs and predicted 1H NMR, and 27Al NMR spectrum. Predictions suggested that three types of HCl species are present; and these predictions were confirmed using data of 13C-labeled acetone and its 13C-NMR spectra. These data showed that only one of the three types of HCl in the IL were super acidic. Reactivity towards arene formylation can be tuned by adjusting the ligands R and R in the organic cation and by changing the anion. This reactivity tuning can be exploited in a process where high acidity is required for the conversion of substrate but where separation of product from IL is facilitated by low acidity.

Στην παρούσα διατριβή µελετάται η ανάπτυξη υποστηριγµένων καταλυτών Pt και καταλυτών (σύνθετων και απλών) µεταλλικών οξειδίων υποστηριγµένων σε γ-Al2O3 για την αντίδραση της οξείδωσης του τολουολίου σε χαµηλές θερµοκρασίες καθώς και η κινητική της εν λόγω αντίδρασης. Τα πειράµατα πραγµατοποιήθηκαν στην θερµοκρασιακή περιοχή 100-500oC µε τροφοδοσία αποτελούµενη από µίγµα 0.1% C7H8 σε αέρα. Η καταλυτική ενεργότητα των καταλυτών Pt/MxOy εξαρτάται από την φύση του φορέα (CeO2, TiO2, SiO2, Al2O3, La2O3, κ.λ.) µε το Pt/CeO2 να παρουσιάζει την µεγαλύτερη ενεργότητα σε χαµηλές θερµοκρασίες. H αύξηση της ποσότητας του Pt από 0.5% έως 5.0% οδηγεί σε σηµαντική µετατόπιση της καµπύλης µετατροπής του τολουολίου προς χαµηλότερες θερµοκρασίες, ενώ η συχνότητας αναστροφής του τολουολίου (TOF) δεν εξαρτάται από τη φόρτιση σε µέταλλο, τουλάχιστον για καταλύτες Pt. Τα αναγώγιµα µεταλλικά οξείδια, όπως η δηµήτρια, είναι ενεργά για την οξείδωση του τολουολίου και η καταλυτική τους ενεργότητα αυξάνεται µε αύξηση της ειδικής επιφάνειας. Ωστόσο, ο εγγενής ρυθµός ανά m2 επιφάνειας καταλύτη παραµένει ο ίδιος για όλα τα δείγµατα που δοκιµάστηκαν. Μελετήθηκε η καταλυτική συµπεριφορά διάφορων µεταλλικών οξειδίων υποστηριγµένων σε γ-Al2O3 (MxOy/Al2O3). Τα αποτελέσµατα δείχνουν ότι η διασπορά των MxOy σε αδρανή φορέα υψηλής επιφάνειας, όπως γ-Al2O3, οδηγεί σε καταλύτες που χαρακτηρίζονται από σχετικά µεγάλη καταλυτική δραστικότητα, η οποία είναι σηµαντικά υψηλότερη για τα αναγώγιµα από ότι για τα µη-αναγώγιµα. Η καταλυτική συµπεριφορά µπορεί να βελτιωθεί µε την κατάλληλη επιλογή της ποσότητας φόρτισης σε MxOy. Καλύτερη απόδοση σε αυτή την σειρά καταλυτών παρουσιάζουν οι καταλύτες 60%MnOx, 90%CeO2 και 5%CuO υποστηριγµένοι σε Al2O3, οι οποίοι, κάτω από τις παρούσες συνθήκες αντίδρασης, είναι ικανοί να επιτυγχάνουν ολική µετατροπή τολουολίου σε θερµοκρασίες χαµηλότερες από 350oC. Η προσθήκη του Pt σε MxOy/Al2O3 βελτιώνει σηµαντικά την καταλυτική συµπεριφορά των µη-αναγώγιµων MxOy, αλλά δεν µεταβάλλει, ουσιαστικά, την ενεργότητα των αναγώγιµων MxOy. Προκειµένου να βελτιωθεί περαιτέρω η καταλυτική συµπεριφορά µελετήθηκε η καταλυτική ενεργότητα σύνθετων οξειδίων µετάλλων (MxOy = CuO, CeO2, MnOx)διεσπαρµένων σε γ-Al2O3 για την αντίδραση της οξείδωση του τολουολίου. Τα αποτελέσµατα των πειραµάτων που πραγµατοποιήθηκαν στη θερµοκρασιακή περιοχή 150-450οC έδειξαν ότι η ενεργότητα των σύνθετων καταλυτών εξαρτάται σηµαντικά από τη φύση, τη φόρτιση και την αναγωγιµότητα των επιµέρους οξειδίων. Βέλτιστη καταλυτική συµπεριφορά παρατηρήθηκε για µικτά οξείδια 10%CuO-60%MnOx, 15%CuO-75%CeO2 και 30%MnOx-50%CeO2 σε γ-Al2O3, η ενεργότητα των οποίων είναι συγκρίσιµη µε τους καταλύτες διασπαρµένων ευγενών µετάλλων. Η συµπεριφορά των βέλτιστων σύνθετων καταλυτών σε σύγκριση µε τα επιµέρους απλά µεταλλικά οξείδια υποστηριγµένα στον ίδιο φορέα (γ-Al2O3) µελετήθηκε περαιτέρω. Μετρήσεις του εγγενούς ρυθµού που πραγµατοποιήθηκαν σε διαφορικές συνθήκες αντίδρασης έδειξαν ότι η ενεργότητα αυτών των υλικών είναι περισσότερο από µία τάξη µεγέθους υψηλότερη από αυτή των αντίστοιχων απλών οξειδίων, υποδεικνύοντας την ύπαρξη φαινοµένων συνέργειας. Τα αποτελέσµατα πειραµάτων XRD που ελήφθησαν από τους σύνθετους καταλύτες δεν έδειξαν το σχηµατισµό κάποιας καινούργιας φάσης σε σύγκριση µε τα αντίστοιχα απλά οξείδια. Οι αλληλεπιδράσεις µεταξύ των ενεργών φάσεων και του φορέα εξετάστηκαν µέσω τεχνικών TPD και TPO. Στα πειράµατα TPD παρατηρήθηκε ότι οι πιο ενεργοί καταλύτες είναι αυτοί που εκροφούν µεγαλύτερες ποσότητες τολουολίου και παραγάγουν περισσότερο CO2 ή/και σε χαµηλότερη θερµοκρασία. Τα πειράµατα TPO έδειξαν ότι οι βέλτιστοι καταλύτες παράγουν µικρότερες ποσότητες CO2. Η επίδραση της παρουσίας δεύτερου VOC (προπανίου) ή υδρατµών στην τροφοδοσία µελετήθηκε στους βέλτιστους σύνθετους καταλύτες. Τα αποτελέσµατα δείχνουν ότι η παρουσία του νερού ή του προπανίου επιδρά παρεµποδιστικά στην καύση του τολουολίου, η παρουσία του οποίου, γενικά, δεν επηρεάζει σηµαντικά την οξείδωση του προπανίου στους τρεις βέλτιστους καταλύτες. Η επίδραση της µερικής πίεσης του τολουολίου στον εγγενή ρυθµό της αντίδρασης µελετήθηκε µε χρήση των τριών βέλτιστων σύνθετων καταλυτών στην θερµοκρασιακή περιοχή 270-320oC. Η χρησιµοποιούµενη τροφοδοσία αποτελείται από 0.036– 0.341 (% κ.ο.) C7H8 και σταθερή συγκέντρωση οξυγόνου (20.9 κ.ο % O2). Τα αποτελέσµατα δείχνουν ότι ο ρυθµός της αντίδρασης αυξάνεται, άλλα όχι πολύ σηµαντικά, µε αύξηση της µερικής πίεσης του τολουολίου. Τα κινητικά αποτελέσµατα προσαρµόστηκαν σε εµπειρική εκθετική εξίσωση (Power Law), από την οποία προέκυψαν οι τάξεις των αντιδρώντων, η φαινόµενη ενέργεια ενεργοποίησης της αντίδρασης καθώς και η αντίστοιχη εξίσωση ρυθµού. Συµπεραίνεται ότι κατάλληλος συνδυασµός οξειδίων µετάλλων διεσπαρµένων σε γ-Al2O3 µπορεί να οδηγήσει στην ανάπτυξη καταλυτών µε ενεργότητα συγκρίσιµη µε αυτή των υποστηριγµένων καταλυτών ευγενών µετάλλων. / Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present at low concentrations in industrial waste streams are considered as significant air pollutants due to their toxic and malodorous nature, as well as their contribution to the formation of photochemical smog. Catalytic combustion over supported noble metal catalysts provides an effective method for the elimination of VOCs in exhaust gases and this technology seems to be able to satisfy strict emission standards. Efforts in this field are currently directed toward the development of cheaper, noble metal-free catalytic materials characterized by high activity at low temperatures and long-term stability under reaction conditions. In the present thesis, oxidation of toluene has been investigated over supported platinum catalysts as well as over single and mixed metal oxide (MxOy) catalysts dispersed on high surface γ-Al2O3. Catalysts were characterized with respect to their specific surface area (BET), metal dispersion (selective chemisorption of CO), phase composition and MxOy crystallite size (XRD) and reducibility (H2-TPR, CO-TPR). Catalytic performance for the title reaction was investigated in the temperature range of 100-500oC, using a feed composition consisting of 0.1% toluene in air. For Pt/MxOy catalysts, it has been found that catalytic performance depends on the nature of the support, with Pt/CeO2 being the most active catalyst at low temperatures. The intrinsic reaction rate per surface platinum atom does not depend on Pt loading (0.5-5 wt.%), at least for Pt/Al2O3 catalyst, but the global reaction rate increases with increase of exposed metallic surface area. Reducible metal oxides, such as ceria, are active for the title reaction and catalytic performance is improved significantly with increase of specific surface area (SSA). However, the intrinsic reaction rate per unit surface area is the same regardless of SSA. Dispersion of MxOy on high surface inert supports, such as Al2O3, results in materials with relatively high catalytic activity, which is considerably higher for reducible, compared to irreducible metal oxides. Catalytic performance of MxOy/Al2O3 catalysts can be optimized by proper selection of MxOy loading. Best performing catalysts of this series include 60%MnOx, 90%CeO2 and 5%CuO on Al2O3 which, under the present experimental conditions, are able to completely convert toluene toward CO2 at temperatures lower than 350oC. Dispersion of Pt on MxOy/Al2O3 catalysts improves significantly the catalytic performance of irreducible MxOy but does not alter appreciably activity of reducible MxOy/Al2O3 catalysts. The catalytic oxidation of toluene has been investigated also over single and composite metal oxide catalysts supported on γ-Al2O3. Catalysts were synthesized with the impregnation method and were characterized with respect to their specific surface area (BET method), crystalline mode and mean crystallite size (XRD technique), as well as with respect to their reducibility (temperature programmed reduction with H2 or CO). The effects of the nature, loading and composition of catalytic materials on their performance for VOC combustion has been investigated. Optimal results were obtained over Al2O3-supported CuO, CeO2, MnO2 catalysts and their mixtures. For certain metal oxide combinations, e.g., 10%CuO-60%MnOx, 15%CuO-75%CeO2 and 30%MnOx-50%CeO2, activity was found to be comparable to that of supported noble metal catalysts. Measurements of reaction rates under differential reaction conditions showed that specific activity of these materials was up to one order of magnitude higher, compared to that of the corresponding single metal oxides, implying that synergistic effects are operable. Results of XRD experiments did not show formation of new phases, but mixed oxide catalysts were found to exhibit a higher reducibility compared to catalysts consisting of the corresponding single metal oxides. The synergic effect of metal oxides interaction on the oxidation reaction was studied employing TPD and TPO techniques. The more active catalyst, the higher the amount of desorbed toluene and the higher the amount of CO2 production in the in the TPD experiments. The TPO experiments indicate that the optimized composite catalysts produce lower amounts of CO2 at lower temperature, compared to the corresponding single metal oxides. The influence of the presence of a second VOC (propane) or of water on the oxidation of toluene was also investigated. Results showed that the presence of water or propane in the feed results in a decrease of catalytic activity, while the presence of toluene doesn’t have any influence in the catalytic oxidation of propane over the optimized composite catalysts. The effect of partial pressure of toluene on the kinetic reaction rate has been investigated over the optimum composite catalysts in the 270–320oC range using a feed stream consisting of 0.036– 0.341 vol%C7H8 and a constant concentration of oxygen (20.9 vol% O2). Result showed that increasing the partial pressure of toluene leads to an increase of the reaction rate. The orders of the reaction with respect to reactants for the optimized catalysts were determined by fitting the experimental data to an empirical power-law rate expression according to which the reaction rate is given by the following relationships: 2.abtolOrkPp= (1) .0.aERTkke= (2) Results of the present study show that the catalytic performance of certain Al2O3-supported composite metal oxide catalysts is comparable to that of conventional supported noble metal catalysts. These materials could provide the basis for the development of cost-effective catalysts for combustion of VOCs present in waste gas streams.

L’objectif de cette thèse était de développer un capteur spectrophotométrique pour quantifier le benzène, le toluène et les xylènes (BTX) en temps réel aux valeurs limites d’exposition professionnelles, c’est-à-dire 20 ppmv pour le toluène, 50 ppmv pour les xylènes et 1 ppmv pour le benzène. L’étude a été menée avec plusieurs couches sensibles, un matériau silicique massif synthétisé par le procédé sol-gel ou des films minces (moins de 5 µm) déposés sur quartz par trempage-retrait dans une suspension de nanoparticules de silice mésoporeuse ou de précurseurs permettant d’obtenir des films fins continus de silice mésoporeuse. Nous avons pu démontrer l’efficacité de la détection des BTX en temps réel. L’utilisation des films mésoporeux a permis d’atteindre une répétabilité correcte du capteur (écart type <10%). Néanmoins, ni ces films de silice, ni leur fonctionnalisation par des groupements méthyle n’ont permis de résoudre le problème posé par l’humidité. Seule l'utilisation d'un sécheur que nous avons implémenté dans le dispositif de mesure a permis la détection du toluène en présence d'humidité ambiante. Dans cette configuration, les interférences de 40 ppmv de butanone, acétone et éthanol ont également été éliminées. Finalement la conception d’une cellule multiplaques a permis d’atteindre les limites de détection de 1 ppmv à 267 nm pour le toluène, 1 ppmv à 274 nm pour le p-xylène et 5 ppmv à 252 nm pour le benzène. Enfin, cette limite de détection peut être abaissée à 1 ppmv à 190 nm pour le benzène / The objective of this thesis was to develop a spectrophotometric sensor to quantify benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX) in real time at the level of the occupational exposure limit values, ie 20 ppmv for toluene, 50 Ppmv for xylenes and 1 ppmv for benzene. The study was carried out with several sensitive layers, a solid silicic material synthesized by the sol-gel process or thin films (less than 5 μm) deposited on quartz by dip-coating a suspension of nanoparticles or a precursor solution leading to mesoporous silica thin films. We were able to demonstrate the effectiveness of BTX detection in real time. The use of continuous mesoporous films has enabled a correct repeatability of the sensor (standard deviation <10%). Nevertheless, neither these silica films nor their functionalization by methyl groups have solved the problem posed by moisture. Only the use of a dryer that we implemented in the measuring device allowed the detection of toluene in the presence of ambient humidity. In this configuration, interference of 40 ppmv of butanone, acetone and ethanol was also eliminated. Finally, the design of a multi-plate cell allowed to reach detection limits of 1 ppmv at 267 nm for toluene, 1 ppmv at 274 nm for p-xylene and 5 ppmv at 252 nm for benzene. Finally, this limit of detection can be lowered to 1 ppmv at 190 nm for benzene

Os hidrocarbonetos monoaromáticos BTEX (benzeno, tolueno, etilbenzeno e xilenos) têm sido utilizados como solventes e estão presentes no ambiente, incluindo o ar, solo e água. Entre os componentes mais tóxicos estão o benzeno e o tolueno. Para uma correta avaliação do efeito desses contaminantes em águas é imprescindível a realização de estudos ecotoxicológicos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a toxicidade aguda e crônica dos hidrocarbonetos monoaromáticos por BTEX sobre os organismos testes Daphnia magna, Vibrio fischeri, Desmodesmus subspicatus e comparar os resultados com os limites definidos pelas legislações. Foram preparadas soluções aquosas em presença de metanol empregando-se padrões de BTEX-Mix, benzeno e tolueno (isolados). Essas soluções foram empregadas nos testes de ecotoxicidade conduzidos de acordo com metodologias padronizadas pela ABNT. Os resultados mostraram que para os testes com Daphnia magna os valores de CE50(48h) para BTEX-Mix, benzeno e tolueno foram, respectivamente, 1.187,27 μg.L-1, 73,23 g.L-1, 81,58 μg.L-1. Os testes com Desmodesmus subspicatus não apresentaram sensibilidade para o BTEX-Mix até 1000 μg.L-1 e foram obtidos os valores de CI(96h) para benzeno e tolueno, respectivamente, 197,90 g.L-1, 7.270 g.L-1. Com relação à utilização de metodologias padronizadas foi verificado que os ensaios com Daphnia magna apresentaram maior reprodutibilidade. Os resultados dos ensaios com Vibrio fischeri não apresentaram reprodutibilidade principalmente devido à volatilização das amostras. Comparações realizadas entre os valores das legislações e os resultados obtidos nos testes permitiram afirmar que, na maioria dos casos, os valores máximos permitidos estão abaixo do CE50 encontrado no estudo. Para descarte de efluentes em corpo receptor são preocupantes os valores estipulados quando o corpo receptor não possui grande capacidade de assimilar as altas cargas dos monoaromáticos. Para a Portaria 2914/2011 de consumo de água, o valor de 170 μg.L-1 está acima do CE50 e do CE10 encontrado para Daphnia magna, enquanto para a dessendentação de animais conforme o CONAMA 396/08 está abaixo. Os valores internacionais ambientais coincidem e estão abaixo dos valores encontrados, já as referências no Brasil para avaliação de passivos estão acima. / The hidocarbonetos monoaromatic BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes) have been used as solvents and are present in the environment, including air, soil and water. Among the most toxic components are benzene and toluene. For a correct evaluation of the effect of these contaminants in water is essential to carry out ecotoxicological studies. The objective of this work was to study the acute and chronic toxicity of monoaromatic hydrocarbons BTEX represented by tests on organisms Daphnia magna, Vibrio fischeri, Desmodesmus subspicatus and compare with the current laws. Aqueous solutions were prepared in the presence of methanol from patterns of BTEX-Mix, benzene, and toluene (isolated). These solutions were used to ecotoxicity tests according to standard procedures by ABNT. The results showed that in tests with Daphnia magna EC50 values (48h) for BTEX (mix), benzene and toluene were respectively 1187.27 μgL-1, 73.23 μgL-1, 81.58 μgL-1. Tests with Desmodesmus subspicatus showed no sensitivity to the BTEX (mix) until 1000 μgL-1 were obtained and the values of CI (96h) for benzene and toluene, respectively, 197.90 μgL-1, 7,270 μgL-1. With respect to the use of standardized methodologies been found that Daphnia magna assays showed higher reproducibility. The results of tests with Vibrio fischeri showed no reproducibility principally due to volatilization of the samples. Comparisons between the values of laws and the results obtained in tests enabled state that in most cases the maximum allowed values are below the EC50 found in the study. For disposal of effluent in the receiving body are disturbing the values stipulated when the receiver does not have great body ability to absorb the high loads of monoaromatic. For Ordinance number 2914/2011 of water amounts to 170 μgL-1. It is above the EC50 and EC10 found for Daphnia magna, while for tooth loss of animals as CONAMA 396/08 is below. The international environmental values coincide and are below the values found in the references already in Brazil for evaluation of liabilities are above.

Os hidrocarbonetos monoaromáticos BTEX (benzeno, tolueno, etilbenzeno e xilenos) têm sido utilizados como solventes e estão presentes no ambiente, incluindo o ar, solo e água. Entre os componentes mais tóxicos estão o benzeno e o tolueno. Para uma correta avaliação do efeito desses contaminantes em águas é imprescindível a realização de estudos ecotoxicológicos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a toxicidade aguda e crônica dos hidrocarbonetos monoaromáticos por BTEX sobre os organismos testes Daphnia magna, Vibrio fischeri, Desmodesmus subspicatus e comparar os resultados com os limites definidos pelas legislações. Foram preparadas soluções aquosas em presença de metanol empregando-se padrões de BTEX-Mix, benzeno e tolueno (isolados). Essas soluções foram empregadas nos testes de ecotoxicidade conduzidos de acordo com metodologias padronizadas pela ABNT. Os resultados mostraram que para os testes com Daphnia magna os valores de CE50(48h) para BTEX-Mix, benzeno e tolueno foram, respectivamente, 1.187,27 μg.L-1, 73,23 g.L-1, 81,58 μg.L-1. Os testes com Desmodesmus subspicatus não apresentaram sensibilidade para o BTEX-Mix até 1000 μg.L-1 e foram obtidos os valores de CI(96h) para benzeno e tolueno, respectivamente, 197,90 g.L-1, 7.270 g.L-1. Com relação à utilização de metodologias padronizadas foi verificado que os ensaios com Daphnia magna apresentaram maior reprodutibilidade. Os resultados dos ensaios com Vibrio fischeri não apresentaram reprodutibilidade principalmente devido à volatilização das amostras. Comparações realizadas entre os valores das legislações e os resultados obtidos nos testes permitiram afirmar que, na maioria dos casos, os valores máximos permitidos estão abaixo do CE50 encontrado no estudo. Para descarte de efluentes em corpo receptor são preocupantes os valores estipulados quando o corpo receptor não possui grande capacidade de assimilar as altas cargas dos monoaromáticos. Para a Portaria 2914/2011 de consumo de água, o valor de 170 μg.L-1 está acima do CE50 e do CE10 encontrado para Daphnia magna, enquanto para a dessendentação de animais conforme o CONAMA 396/08 está abaixo. Os valores internacionais ambientais coincidem e estão abaixo dos valores encontrados, já as referências no Brasil para avaliação de passivos estão acima. / The hidocarbonetos monoaromatic BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes) have been used as solvents and are present in the environment, including air, soil and water. Among the most toxic components are benzene and toluene. For a correct evaluation of the effect of these contaminants in water is essential to carry out ecotoxicological studies. The objective of this work was to study the acute and chronic toxicity of monoaromatic hydrocarbons BTEX represented by tests on organisms Daphnia magna, Vibrio fischeri, Desmodesmus subspicatus and compare with the current laws. Aqueous solutions were prepared in the presence of methanol from patterns of BTEX-Mix, benzene, and toluene (isolated). These solutions were used to ecotoxicity tests according to standard procedures by ABNT. The results showed that in tests with Daphnia magna EC50 values (48h) for BTEX (mix), benzene and toluene were respectively 1187.27 μgL-1, 73.23 μgL-1, 81.58 μgL-1. Tests with Desmodesmus subspicatus showed no sensitivity to the BTEX (mix) until 1000 μgL-1 were obtained and the values of CI (96h) for benzene and toluene, respectively, 197.90 μgL-1, 7,270 μgL-1. With respect to the use of standardized methodologies been found that Daphnia magna assays showed higher reproducibility. The results of tests with Vibrio fischeri showed no reproducibility principally due to volatilization of the samples. Comparisons between the values of laws and the results obtained in tests enabled state that in most cases the maximum allowed values are below the EC50 found in the study. For disposal of effluent in the receiving body are disturbing the values stipulated when the receiver does not have great body ability to absorb the high loads of monoaromatic. For Ordinance number 2914/2011 of water amounts to 170 μgL-1. It is above the EC50 and EC10 found for Daphnia magna, while for tooth loss of animals as CONAMA 396/08 is below. The international environmental values coincide and are below the values found in the references already in Brazil for evaluation of liabilities are above.