A presente dissertação parte da premissa de que o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro deve dispor de institutos jurídicos aptos a tutelar, de maneira eficiente, os bens e interesses da maior relevância, bem como a assegurar a manutenção do equilíbrio social. Trata-se da única maneira de garantir, em níveis adequados, a segurança social (art. 5o, caput, da CF/88), bem como de perseguir aquele que é tido como um dos objetivos fundamentais da República Federativa do Brasil, o de construir uma sociedade livre, justa e solidária (art. 3o, I, da CF/88). Deve-se, portanto, impedir o cometimento de atos anti-sociais, direcionados, de maneira intencional ou extremamente negligente, à lesão dos supra referidos interesses, atos estes tão reprováveis que seus efeitos extrapolam o âmbito individual (= da vítima diretamente atingida), causando impactos negativos também no âmbito coletivo (= um rebaixamento do nível social). Acredita-se que, para atingir tais fins, deve-se utilizar um remédio jurídico que seja, ao mesmo tempo, suficientemente flexível (para que possa sancionar todas as condutas potencialmente lesivas) e adequadamente severo (para que possa punir o ofensor e prevenir o cometimento de semelhantes atos no futuro). Nesse sentido, os conhecidos instrumentos do Direito Penal e do Direito Administrativo se mostram insuficientes. Para tanto, deve-se recorrer ao Direito Civil e, mais especificamente, à responsabilidade civil, agregando-se-lhe o mecanismo necessário para que possa desempenhar eficientemente as funções de prevenção e punição, o qual denominamos de indenização punitiva. Trata-se de instituto estrutural e funcionalmente assemelhado aos punitive damages, típicos dos países da common law e que nos servirão de modelo para a indenização punitiva, mas cuja aplicação, dadas as peculiaridades de nosso ordenamento constitucional, demanda prévia cominação legal. Tal regramento deverá estipular não apenas os pressupostos objetivos e subjetivos para a incidência da indenização punitiva (que só deve ocorrer nos casos da mais alta reprovabilidade, quando o ofensor houver se conduzido com dolo ou culpa grave, causando prejuízos a interesses existenciais ou metaindividuais, ou ainda extraindo benefícios econômicos do ilícito perpetrado), mas, também, os critérios a serem utilizados para a quantificação da sanção (os quais não se relacionam com, nem tampouco se limitam à, extensão dos prejuízos sofridos). / The current paper starts from the premise that the brazilian Law ought to make use of legal institutes that are able to protect, efficiently, the goods and interests of utmost relevance, as well as to assure the maintenance of the social balance. It is the only way to warrant, in adequate levels, the social security (art. 5th, caput, of FC/88), as well as to pursue that which is held as one of the fundamental objectives of the Federal Republic of Brazil, to build a free, just and sympathetic society (art. 3rd, I, of FC/88). It is needed, therefore, to preclude the commission of anti-social acts, aimed, in intentional or extremely negligent way, to the injury of the above mentioned interests, acts that are so reprehensible that its effects surpasses the individual context (= of the victim who is directly injured), causing negative impacts also to the social context (= a depreciation of the social level). It is believed that, to achieve these goals, one must use a judicial sanction that is, at the same time, sufficiently flexible (to be able to sanction all of the potentially detrimental conducts) and adequately severe (to be able to punish the offender and prevent the commitment of similar acts in the future). In that sense, the known instruments of Criminal Law and Administrative Law seem insufficient. For that purpose, one must resort to the Civil Law and, most specifically, to the tort law, adding to it the mecanism it needs to fulfill efficiently the functions of deterrence and punishment, which we call indenização punitiva. It is an institute structural and functionally similar to the punitive damages, typical of the countries of common law and which will serve as a model to the indenização punitiva, but whose enforcement demands previous legal provision. That provision must stipulate not only the objective and subjective requirements to the imposition of the indenização punitiva (which will only occur in the cases of utmost reprehensibility, when the offender acts with intent or gross negligence, injuring existential or metaindividual interests, or yet deriving economic benefits from the tort perpetrated), but also, the criteria to be used to quantify the sanction (which do not relate, neither limit, to the extension of the harm suffered).

This thesis is about corporate attribution in private law. Unlike human persons, companies are artificial legal persons. They lack a physical body with which to act, and a mind with which to think. English law therefore developed the concept of attribution so that legal rules could be applied to companies. Attribution is the process of legal reasoning by which the acts and states of mind of human individuals acting for a company are treated as that of the company, so as to establish the company’s rights against and obligations owed to other parties. This thesis examines the rules of attribution across the private law of obligations, focusing on the law of contract, tort, unjust enrichment, and selected aspects of equitable liability. Three main arguments are made in this thesis. First, there is a sharp distinction between the rules of attribution and the substantive rules of private law to which they apply. The former belongs in the law of persons, and it concerns when the acts and states of mind of an individual can be attributed to a company. The latter belongs in the law of obligations. Second, the same rules of attribution should be, and have largely been used across the entire expanse of private law. Regardless of the area of private law in which the question of attribution arises, the same question is being asked, and so the law’s answer should be the same. Like should be treated alike. This is normatively desirable, because it ensures coherence across private law. Third, it is therefore possible to state the rules of attribution that apply in private law. The acts of an individual A will be attributed to the company C where they were (i) specifically authorised (‘specific authority’), (ii) where A performs an act within the class of acts that A has power to do on behalf of C, even if A is acting in breach of duty (‘actual authority’), or (iii) where A has either been placed in a position or been held out by C such that a reasonable person in the position of a third party would reasonably believe that A had the power to act for C (‘apparent authority’). A’s knowledge will be attributed to C where it is material to the class of acts that A had specific or actual authority to do on behalf of C. Although commonly thought to be a series of diverse, disparate rules found in different doctrines and different areas of law, the rules of attribution form a remarkably coherent, consistent whole across private law.

No presente estudo buscar-se-á investigar a corresponsabilidade do lesado na responsabilidade civil, inserido no direito brasileiro no artigo 945 do Código Civil. Assim, inicialmente, tratar-se-á da conexão do tema com o dano fortuito e o dano causado a si mesmo para, em sequência abordar a corresponsabilidade do lesado com enfoque sobre a função preventiva da responsabilidade civil ao incentivar não somente o lesante a não reincidir em atos ilícitos, mas também a vítima. A corresponsabilidade do lesado será apresentada como exceção ao princípio da reparação integral do dano. A seguir, passa-se a tratar da corresponsabilidade da vítima e os estudos a respeito do nexo de causalidade e a análise das teorias da causalidade. Merece também exame a aplicação nos casos de corresponsabilidade do lesado e sua incidência quando da responsabilidade objetiva. Será demonstrada uma análise da recepção da corresponsabilidade do lesado nas legislações estrangeiras com enfoque especial ao sistema da commow law com a contributory negligence e sua migração para o comparative negligence. Em capítulos específicos são abordados estudos a respeito do dever de colaborar com a mitigação do próprio prejuízo (duty to mitigate the loss) e também a interlocução com o artigo 935 do Código Civil. Outro centro do presente estudo é a proporção na redução equitativa do dano quando identificada a concausalidade da vítima pelo magistrado e a contribuição da disciplina de direito e economia para o tema. / The present study will seek to investigate comparative negligence in tort law inserted in Brazilian law in the article 945 of the Civil Code. So initially it will treat the theme of connection with the accidental damage and damage to yourself to sequentially treat the comparative negligence focusing on the preventive function of liability to encourage not only the perpetrator not reoccur in unlawful acts and also presents it as an exception to the principle of full compensation for the damage. Following going to deal with the comparative negligence and the studies of the causation and the analysis of causality theories. Also worth examining the application of the victim responsibility cases and its impact when it focuses strict liability. It will be shown an analysis of the injured responsibility reception in foreign legislation being given special attention to the commow law system with contributory negligence and their migration to the comparative negligence. In specific chapters are covered studies on the duty to mitigate the loss and also interlocution with Article 935 of the Civil Code. Another center of the study is the proportion equitable harm reduction when concausalidade identified the victim by the magistrate and the contribution of the discipline of Law and Economics at the subject.

The applied practice of duty of care of the educator in historically Afrikaans medium secondary schools in the districts of Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp. When a parent sends his child to school the learner is entrusted to the care of educators, and the educator acts as a person in loco parentis regarding the physical protection of the learner. In order to ensure this safety of learners, it is necessary to create a climate of safety and security for them by utilizing rules and regulations. This implies that the educator, in the application of the practice of duty of care, is obliged to protect the learner from physical damage. The compulsion laid upon the educator to ensure the physical welfare of learners entrusted to his care, results from a delegated obligation (the in loco parent/s-position of the educator) and an original obligation. It is important for the educator to evaluate, comprehend and apply his position and the accompanying standard of the practice of duty of care legally required in the light of relevant legislation, legal adage and common law principles. Literature study has shown that the obligations and responsibilities regarding the duty of care of educators are established by a combination of determinants, inter alia statutory legislation, South African and International legal adage and elements of common law. There is no separate field of laws to exclusively determine and influence education but rather an eclectic field of legislation comprising norms and standards from the entire field of legislation as applicable in contemporary South Africa. With the accent currently on the professional conduct of the educator, they should keep in mind that they, like any other professional person, will be evaluated by stricter measures. In establishing negligence from an educator, the skills and care are expected from the educator as a professional person, an expert in the field of teaching with specialised knowledge. Thus, the conduct of an educator is measured by the elevated standards as expected from the reasonable expert. An empirical investigation was launched by means of a questionnaire completed by post level -1 educators and heads of department in historically Afrikaans secondary schools in the Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp districts. The aim of this research was to establish • the insight, perceptions and knowledge of the educators regarding key legal questions with reference to their care of duty practice and • the extent to which the duty of care practices of the educators meet with the requirements of educational law. The empirical investigation established inter alia that • respondents generally seem to possess reasonable knowledge of education laws regarding the practice of their duty of care; • most of the respondents seem not to be able to apply their knowledge of educational laws to their duty of care; • it seems that the practice of duty of care of the majority of the respondents does not meet with the elevated standards expected legally from a professional educator and that • specialised training in education law has the most significant effect on the practice of duty of care of the educator. With regard to the findings, specific recommendations were made, relevant to role players in education on macro, meso and micro level. These recommendations should promote a heightened standard in the practice of care of duty with practicing educators. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The applied practice of duty of care of the educator in historically Afrikaans medium secondary schools in the districts of Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp. When a parent sends his child to school the learner is entrusted to the care of educators, and the educator acts as a person in loco parentis regarding the physical protection of the learner. In order to ensure this safety of learners, it is necessary to create a climate of safety and security for them by utilizing rules and regulations. This implies that the educator, in the application of the practice of duty of care, is obliged to protect the learner from physical damage. The compulsion laid upon the educator to ensure the physical welfare of learners entrusted to his care, results from a delegated obligation (the in loco parent/s-position of the educator) and an original obligation. It is important for the educator to evaluate, comprehend and apply his position and the accompanying standard of the practice of duty of care legally required in the light of relevant legislation, legal adage and common law principles. Literature study has shown that the obligations and responsibilities regarding the duty of care of educators are established by a combination of determinants, inter alia statutory legislation, South African and International legal adage and elements of common law. There is no separate field of laws to exclusively determine and influence education but rather an eclectic field of legislation comprising norms and standards from the entire field of legislation as applicable in contemporary South Africa. With the accent currently on the professional conduct of the educator, they should keep in mind that they, like any other professional person, will be evaluated by stricter measures. In establishing negligence from an educator, the skills and care are expected from the educator as a professional person, an expert in the field of teaching with specialised knowledge. Thus, the conduct of an educator is measured by the elevated standards as expected from the reasonable expert. An empirical investigation was launched by means of a questionnaire completed by post level -1 educators and heads of department in historically Afrikaans secondary schools in the Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp districts. The aim of this research was to establish • the insight, perceptions and knowledge of the educators regarding key legal questions with reference to their care of duty practice and • the extent to which the duty of care practices of the educators meet with the requirements of educational law. The empirical investigation established inter alia that • respondents generally seem to possess reasonable knowledge of education laws regarding the practice of their duty of care; • most of the respondents seem not to be able to apply their knowledge of educational laws to their duty of care; • it seems that the practice of duty of care of the majority of the respondents does not meet with the elevated standards expected legally from a professional educator and that • specialised training in education law has the most significant effect on the practice of duty of care of the educator. With regard to the findings, specific recommendations were made, relevant to role players in education on macro, meso and micro level. These recommendations should promote a heightened standard in the practice of care of duty with practicing educators. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Over the past decade, concerns with the accessibility and quality of health services have led several individuals to bring tort claims against provincial governments. Unlike other types of health sector legal claims, which have been the subject of much commentary, this thesis provides the first treatment of the tort cases against governmental defendants. To date, Canadian courts have not been receptive to these claims, striking nearly all of them on pre-trial motions, on the basis that government defendants did not owe the plaintiffs a duty of care. In order to situate the health sector tort claims within the judiciary’s broader approach to governmental liability, I compiled a dataset of all tort cases against Canadian governmental defendants from the past decade. My dataset indicates that judges have dismissed more health sector tort claims than those arising from nearly all other sectors of government activity, even accounting for other explanatory variables. I also develop a framework to categorize the judicial approaches to the test for establishing a duty of care. Canadian judges now generally conduct a comprehensive analysis of the closeness and directness of the parties’ relationship and the policy implications of tort liability in determining whether a defendant owes a plaintiff a duty of care. However, judges adjudicating health sector claims fail to appreciate the government’s modern role in the health sector and are almost singularly concerned with the policy implications of their decisions. I conclude with two policy recommendations. First, I argue that judges should more frequently permit these claims to proceed beyond the pre-trial dismissal stage to a full trial, in order to evaluate the policy concerns both for and against governmental liability with the benefit of a full evidentiary record. Second, I argue that judges should more frequently permit health sector tort claims to proceed beyond the duty of care stage of the negligence analysis to an assessment of whether the government met the standard of care. While this approach would allow judges to scrutinize the reasonableness of the government’s decisions, improving transparency and potentially motivating an improved decision-making process, it would not necessarily lead to widespread liability.

Over the past decade, concerns with the accessibility and quality of health services have led several individuals to bring tort claims against provincial governments. Unlike other types of health sector legal claims, which have been the subject of much commentary, this thesis provides the first treatment of the tort cases against governmental defendants. To date, Canadian courts have not been receptive to these claims, striking nearly all of them on pre-trial motions, on the basis that government defendants did not owe the plaintiffs a duty of care. In order to situate the health sector tort claims within the judiciary’s broader approach to governmental liability, I compiled a dataset of all tort cases against Canadian governmental defendants from the past decade. My dataset indicates that judges have dismissed more health sector tort claims than those arising from nearly all other sectors of government activity, even accounting for other explanatory variables. I also develop a framework to categorize the judicial approaches to the test for establishing a duty of care. Canadian judges now generally conduct a comprehensive analysis of the closeness and directness of the parties’ relationship and the policy implications of tort liability in determining whether a defendant owes a plaintiff a duty of care. However, judges adjudicating health sector claims fail to appreciate the government’s modern role in the health sector and are almost singularly concerned with the policy implications of their decisions. I conclude with two policy recommendations. First, I argue that judges should more frequently permit these claims to proceed beyond the pre-trial dismissal stage to a full trial, in order to evaluate the policy concerns both for and against governmental liability with the benefit of a full evidentiary record. Second, I argue that judges should more frequently permit health sector tort claims to proceed beyond the duty of care stage of the negligence analysis to an assessment of whether the government met the standard of care. While this approach would allow judges to scrutinize the reasonableness of the government’s decisions, improving transparency and potentially motivating an improved decision-making process, it would not necessarily lead to widespread liability.

No presente estudo buscar-se-á investigar a corresponsabilidade do lesado na responsabilidade civil, inserido no direito brasileiro no artigo 945 do Código Civil. Assim, inicialmente, tratar-se-á da conexão do tema com o dano fortuito e o dano causado a si mesmo para, em sequência abordar a corresponsabilidade do lesado com enfoque sobre a função preventiva da responsabilidade civil ao incentivar não somente o lesante a não reincidir em atos ilícitos, mas também a vítima. A corresponsabilidade do lesado será apresentada como exceção ao princípio da reparação integral do dano. A seguir, passa-se a tratar da corresponsabilidade da vítima e os estudos a respeito do nexo de causalidade e a análise das teorias da causalidade. Merece também exame a aplicação nos casos de corresponsabilidade do lesado e sua incidência quando da responsabilidade objetiva. Será demonstrada uma análise da recepção da corresponsabilidade do lesado nas legislações estrangeiras com enfoque especial ao sistema da commow law com a contributory negligence e sua migração para o comparative negligence. Em capítulos específicos são abordados estudos a respeito do dever de colaborar com a mitigação do próprio prejuízo (duty to mitigate the loss) e também a interlocução com o artigo 935 do Código Civil. Outro centro do presente estudo é a proporção na redução equitativa do dano quando identificada a concausalidade da vítima pelo magistrado e a contribuição da disciplina de direito e economia para o tema. / The present study will seek to investigate comparative negligence in tort law inserted in Brazilian law in the article 945 of the Civil Code. So initially it will treat the theme of connection with the accidental damage and damage to yourself to sequentially treat the comparative negligence focusing on the preventive function of liability to encourage not only the perpetrator not reoccur in unlawful acts and also presents it as an exception to the principle of full compensation for the damage. Following going to deal with the comparative negligence and the studies of the causation and the analysis of causality theories. Also worth examining the application of the victim responsibility cases and its impact when it focuses strict liability. It will be shown an analysis of the injured responsibility reception in foreign legislation being given special attention to the commow law system with contributory negligence and their migration to the comparative negligence. In specific chapters are covered studies on the duty to mitigate the loss and also interlocution with Article 935 of the Civil Code. Another center of the study is the proportion equitable harm reduction when concausalidade identified the victim by the magistrate and the contribution of the discipline of Law and Economics at the subject.

No presente estudo buscar-se-á investigar a corresponsabilidade do lesado na responsabilidade civil, inserido no direito brasileiro no artigo 945 do Código Civil. Assim, inicialmente, tratar-se-á da conexão do tema com o dano fortuito e o dano causado a si mesmo para, em sequência abordar a corresponsabilidade do lesado com enfoque sobre a função preventiva da responsabilidade civil ao incentivar não somente o lesante a não reincidir em atos ilícitos, mas também a vítima. A corresponsabilidade do lesado será apresentada como exceção ao princípio da reparação integral do dano. A seguir, passa-se a tratar da corresponsabilidade da vítima e os estudos a respeito do nexo de causalidade e a análise das teorias da causalidade. Merece também exame a aplicação nos casos de corresponsabilidade do lesado e sua incidência quando da responsabilidade objetiva. Será demonstrada uma análise da recepção da corresponsabilidade do lesado nas legislações estrangeiras com enfoque especial ao sistema da commow law com a contributory negligence e sua migração para o comparative negligence. Em capítulos específicos são abordados estudos a respeito do dever de colaborar com a mitigação do próprio prejuízo (duty to mitigate the loss) e também a interlocução com o artigo 935 do Código Civil. Outro centro do presente estudo é a proporção na redução equitativa do dano quando identificada a concausalidade da vítima pelo magistrado e a contribuição da disciplina de direito e economia para o tema. / The present study will seek to investigate comparative negligence in tort law inserted in Brazilian law in the article 945 of the Civil Code. So initially it will treat the theme of connection with the accidental damage and damage to yourself to sequentially treat the comparative negligence focusing on the preventive function of liability to encourage not only the perpetrator not reoccur in unlawful acts and also presents it as an exception to the principle of full compensation for the damage. Following going to deal with the comparative negligence and the studies of the causation and the analysis of causality theories. Also worth examining the application of the victim responsibility cases and its impact when it focuses strict liability. It will be shown an analysis of the injured responsibility reception in foreign legislation being given special attention to the commow law system with contributory negligence and their migration to the comparative negligence. In specific chapters are covered studies on the duty to mitigate the loss and also interlocution with Article 935 of the Civil Code. Another center of the study is the proportion equitable harm reduction when concausalidade identified the victim by the magistrate and the contribution of the discipline of Law and Economics at the subject.

A presente dissertação parte da premissa de que o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro deve dispor de institutos jurídicos aptos a tutelar, de maneira eficiente, os bens e interesses da maior relevância, bem como a assegurar a manutenção do equilíbrio social. Trata-se da única maneira de garantir, em níveis adequados, a segurança social (art. 5o, caput, da CF/88), bem como de perseguir aquele que é tido como um dos objetivos fundamentais da República Federativa do Brasil, o de construir uma sociedade livre, justa e solidária (art. 3o, I, da CF/88). Deve-se, portanto, impedir o cometimento de atos anti-sociais, direcionados, de maneira intencional ou extremamente negligente, à lesão dos supra referidos interesses, atos estes tão reprováveis que seus efeitos extrapolam o âmbito individual (= da vítima diretamente atingida), causando impactos negativos também no âmbito coletivo (= um rebaixamento do nível social). Acredita-se que, para atingir tais fins, deve-se utilizar um remédio jurídico que seja, ao mesmo tempo, suficientemente flexível (para que possa sancionar todas as condutas potencialmente lesivas) e adequadamente severo (para que possa punir o ofensor e prevenir o cometimento de semelhantes atos no futuro). Nesse sentido, os conhecidos instrumentos do Direito Penal e do Direito Administrativo se mostram insuficientes. Para tanto, deve-se recorrer ao Direito Civil e, mais especificamente, à responsabilidade civil, agregando-se-lhe o mecanismo necessário para que possa desempenhar eficientemente as funções de prevenção e punição, o qual denominamos de indenização punitiva. Trata-se de instituto estrutural e funcionalmente assemelhado aos punitive damages, típicos dos países da common law e que nos servirão de modelo para a indenização punitiva, mas cuja aplicação, dadas as peculiaridades de nosso ordenamento constitucional, demanda prévia cominação legal. Tal regramento deverá estipular não apenas os pressupostos objetivos e subjetivos para a incidência da indenização punitiva (que só deve ocorrer nos casos da mais alta reprovabilidade, quando o ofensor houver se conduzido com dolo ou culpa grave, causando prejuízos a interesses existenciais ou metaindividuais, ou ainda extraindo benefícios econômicos do ilícito perpetrado), mas, também, os critérios a serem utilizados para a quantificação da sanção (os quais não se relacionam com, nem tampouco se limitam à, extensão dos prejuízos sofridos). / The current paper starts from the premise that the brazilian Law ought to make use of legal institutes that are able to protect, efficiently, the goods and interests of utmost relevance, as well as to assure the maintenance of the social balance. It is the only way to warrant, in adequate levels, the social security (art. 5th, caput, of FC/88), as well as to pursue that which is held as one of the fundamental objectives of the Federal Republic of Brazil, to build a free, just and sympathetic society (art. 3rd, I, of FC/88). It is needed, therefore, to preclude the commission of anti-social acts, aimed, in intentional or extremely negligent way, to the injury of the above mentioned interests, acts that are so reprehensible that its effects surpasses the individual context (= of the victim who is directly injured), causing negative impacts also to the social context (= a depreciation of the social level). It is believed that, to achieve these goals, one must use a judicial sanction that is, at the same time, sufficiently flexible (to be able to sanction all of the potentially detrimental conducts) and adequately severe (to be able to punish the offender and prevent the commitment of similar acts in the future). In that sense, the known instruments of Criminal Law and Administrative Law seem insufficient. For that purpose, one must resort to the Civil Law and, most specifically, to the tort law, adding to it the mecanism it needs to fulfill efficiently the functions of deterrence and punishment, which we call indenização punitiva. It is an institute structural and functionally similar to the punitive damages, typical of the countries of common law and which will serve as a model to the indenização punitiva, but whose enforcement demands previous legal provision. That provision must stipulate not only the objective and subjective requirements to the imposition of the indenização punitiva (which will only occur in the cases of utmost reprehensibility, when the offender acts with intent or gross negligence, injuring existential or metaindividual interests, or yet deriving economic benefits from the tort perpetrated), but also, the criteria to be used to quantify the sanction (which do not relate, neither limit, to the extension of the harm suffered).