Modern society is faced with an increasing level of environmental degradation. One effect of this is the loss of possibilities for children to interact with natural environments. Children’s interactions with nature come with a wide range of benefits, both physical and psychological, accentuating the need to develop outdoor spaces for children in areas of preserved nature. One way to approach this challenge is by developing recreational and educational nature trails aimed at children. Länsstyrelsen Gotland (the county administrative board) requested a theoretical suggestion for a children’s nature trail in a prospective nature reserve in Gotland and this study was done to bring forth such a suggestion. The study focused on what educational and recreational elements would be suitable to include in a nature trail for children and how to build ecological knowledge among its visitors in effective and creative ways. The material for this study was collected through semi-structured interviews with children’s caregivers and educators in combination with observations at existing nature trails for children using a geosemiotic approach. The results were analysed through a thematic analysis that extracted four main themes from the two sets of data with sub-themes to broaden the results. The themes and sub-themes were used to highlight elements suitable to include at the stations in terms of activities and layout of the trail, and how to get and keep children’s attention along the trail. A suggestion for a nature trail for children with eight stations was put together, steeped in the non-consumptive standards of ecotourism and with a clear focus on getting the visitors to learn about nature, especially through the framework of ecological literacy. Fun and play were seen as essential components to effectively build ecological knowledge and it is argued that perhaps the objects and activities provided at built-up ecotourism sites are necessary to get more people to visit nature in the first place.

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This dissertation contains two journal articles; the first article (Chapter 2) evaluates the relative influences of use, managerial and environmental factors on trail width, from a survey of all formal trails in Acadia National Park, Maine, USA. Regression analyses of trail width data focus on increasing our understanding of the relationships among visitor use, environmental and managerial factors and trail width. In particular, regression modeling was used to evaluate the relative importance of factors that influence trail width along hiking trails. ANOVA analyses demonstrate differences in trail width based on trail surface type, and the presence or absence of trail borders. A novel approach of comparing intended widths to actual widths enabled us to look specifically at the avoidable and undesirable impacts associated with having a trail that is wider than intended. Informal trails (visitor created) represent a threat to the natural resources of protected natural areas around the globe. These trails can remove vegetation, displace wildlife, alter hydrology, alter habitat, spread invasive species, and fragment landscapes. The second article (Chapter 3) examines informal and formal trails within Great Falls Park, VA, a sub-unit of the George Washington Memorial Parkway, managed by the U.S. National Park Service. This study sought to answer three specific questions: 1) Are the physical characteristics and topographic alignments of informal trails significantly different from formal trails, 2) Can landscape fragmentation metrics be used to summarize the relative impacts of formal and informal trail networks on a protected natural area?, and 3) What can we learn from examining the spatial distribution of the informal trails within protected natural areas? Statistical comparisons between formal and informal trails in this park indicate that informal trails have less sustainable topographic alignments than their formal counterparts. Spatial summaries of the lineal and areal extent and fragmentation associated with the trail networks by park management zones compare park management goals to the assessed attributes. Hotspot analyses highlight areas of high trail density within the park and findings provide insights regarding potential causes for development of dense informal trail networks. / Ph. D.

Short term studies have suggested that ground based timber harvesting on wet sites can alter soil properties and inhibit early survival and growth of seedlings. Persistence of such negative effects may translate to losses in forest productivity over a rotation. During the fall and winter of 1989, numerous salvage logging operations were conducted during high soil moisture conditions on wet pine flats in the lower coastal plain of South Carolina following Hurricane Hugo. A long-term experiment (split-plot within an unbalanced randomized complete block design) allowed assessment of long term effects of rutted and compacted primary skid trails and subsequent site preparation on soil properties and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) productivity. The experiment had 12 blocks, four levels of site preparation as the whole plot factor (bedding, disking with bedding, disking, and no site preparation), and two levels of traffic as the subplot factor (primary skid trail, no obvious traffic). After 23 years, bedding and disking with bedding treatments effectively enhanced soil physical properties and stand productivity via promoting greater survival and stocking, but had little effect on the size of individual trees relative to disking and no site preparation treatments. Primary skid trails significantly reduced the size of individual trees, but had no appreciable long term effects on soil properties or stand productivity after 23 years. The study suggests that bedding is the most efficient practice to enhance soil properties, seedling survival, and stand productivity on wet sites. However, site preparation is not necessary for these soils and sites, if strictly intended to restore soil properties and stand productivity in primary skid trails. Reduction in individual tree sizes on primary skid trails emphasizes benefits in minimizing the spatial extent of disturbance. / Master of Science

Sediment is a prevalent non-point source pollutant associated with forest operations. Roads and skid trail surfaces have erosion rates that are greater than the harvest area. Forestry best management practices (BMPs) have been developed to minimize erosion on skid trails, but few projects have compared the effectiveness of different BMPs for bladed skid trails in the mountains. This project evaluated soil erosion rates from bladed skid trails in the Ridge and Valley physiographic region of Virginia following an operational timber harvest. Skid trails were assigned into six blocks where each block had similar slopes and soils. All BMP treatments had waterbars, which are considered the minimum acceptable BMP closure treatment. Each block contained four different skid trail closure BMP treatments (waterbar only (Control), slash-covered (Slash), seeded (Seed), and seeded with fertilizer and mulch (Mulch)). The 24 treatment units were isolated with waterbars and installed following the Virginia Department of Forestry (VDOF) BMP guidelines. The randomized complete block design had three slope class ranges: gentle (0%-10%), moderate (11%-20%), and steep (21%-30%). Stormwater runoff from skid trails was directed at downslope waterbars and eroded material was trapped in silt fences at each treatment area. Depth and area of eroded soil collected in silt fences was measured monthly to quantify total erosion volume for the skid trail area and converted to a per acre basis. Volumes were converted to mass using soil bulk density within the trapped sediment. Control treatments had an average erosion rate of 6.8 tons ac-1 yr-1, with rates up to 73.5 tons ac-1 yr-1 following installation and during extreme rainfall events. Seed treatments recorded an average erosion rate of 2.6 tons ac-1 yr-1, with rates reaching 27.2 tons ac-1 yr-1. Adding grass seed provided ground cover, but not consistently over time. Due to high rates of ground cover, the Mulch treatments averaged 0.5 tons ac-1 yr-1 with an extreme of 3.8 tons ac-1 yr-1. Slash treatments were found to reduce erosion rates to an average of 0.4 tons ac-1 yr-1, with the highest rate being 1.8 tons ac-1 yr-1. Site characteristics on experimental units were collected quarterly in order to model erosion rates with commonly used erosion models for forestland (USLE-Forest, RUSLE2, WEPP:Road). Direct erosion estimates were compared to erosion model predictions produced by USLE-Forest, RUSLE2, and WEPP:Road in order to partially confirm the relationship between sediment trap data and the models. Using multiple analyses it was determined that USLE-Forest and RUSLE2 predicted mean values that are more similar to the actual measured rates, RUSLE2 and WEPP:Road have better linear relationships to the measured rates than does USLE-Forest, and USLE-Forest was the most statistically similar to the measured data using a nonparametric Steel-Dwass Multiple Comparisons Test. All models performed inadequately when attempting to predict Control or Slash treatments; while all models performed the best at predicting Mulch treatments. / Master of Science

The motivational elements necessary to encourage use of fitness trails by residents of Continuing Care Retirement Communities (CCRCs) was investigated. Previous research suggested that both the walking and exercise parts of these fitness trails are being used by only a small percentage of' the residents. A checklist was used to identify the number of motivational elements that were present in the design of the fitness trails at three CCRCs. A staff questionnaire was used to determine management involvement and fitness program specifics. This research investigates the extent to which Jane Jacobs’ (1961) work with sidewalks in cities can be applied to the fitness trail within the CCRC. The research questions generated for this study were: To what extent is the success of the fitness trail dependent on the intricate mutual support given it by its surrounding elements? Does a single activity or amenity contribute to the success of a fitness trail or is a variety of choices necessary for potential users to experience? Is this aspect of choice essential to participant satisfaction? The analysis identified several elements that may contribute to the use of a fitness trail by older adults. The use of the concept of tangible rewards by one of the CCRCs contributed to a significantly greater percentage of resident use. / Master of Landscape Architecture

Greenway trails, or linear community parks, are growing in popularity around the world and are increasingly prevalent in cities of all sizes in the United States. At their best, greenways can provide affordable transportation, access to jobs, safe recreation space, community building, biodiversity protection, stormwater drainage, and air and noise quality benefits. Yet, commonly, neoliberal governance and design of greenways leads to diminished social and environmental design in favor of economic development. Intentional design for social, environmental and economic stability is crucial for successful greenways, though they are often viewed as innately sustainable. Urban Political Ecology (UPE), Actor Network Theory (ANT), and Campbell's Sustainable Development are used together as lenses to better understand the greenway development process and its outcomes. This research is a case study of the Roanoke River Greenway (RRG) in Roanoke, Virginia which was conducted in attempt to discover who benefits from the greenway, in what ways, and by what means. Semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and mapping combined to answer research questions. Participants were eleven neighborhood residents, five greenway commissioners, and five city and regional leaders involved with the greenway. Interviews were transcribed, coded, and grouped into themes, along with map data and field notes. I combined these methods to draw conclusions that shed light on the complex system surrounding the RRG. Conclusions are (1) that residents who live near the greenway and want to use it for recreational purposes as well as the City of Roanoke and its elite class of businessowners and homeowning residents who live near the greenway benefit the most from the RRG benefit because the greenway is catered toward recreation and economic development, in form, function, and process, (2) that the system which enables these benefits and prioritizes their beneficiaries is the greenway's evolving planning process, a system both steeped in mindsets of traditional economic development and exclusive planning aesthetics and imbued with innovative approaches of connecting residents to the outdoor environment, and (3) that Roanoke's greenway movement is strong because of its popularity but is vulnerable, because there are no provisions to officially protect it for the future, in terms of maintenance, increased use, and public opinion. Implications for praxis are that communities with greenway trails should diversify the people and perspectives who have power in the planning practice, that environmental and social design should be addressed directly and consistently in greenway development and maintenance, and greater outreach efforts should be made to residents in order to make the greenways more accessible and welcoming to diverse users. Implications for research are for increased research conducted with low-income and minority residents and on microlevel social and economic impacts in neighborhoods. / Doctor of Philosophy / Greenway trails, or linear community parks, grow in popularity around the world and are increasingly prevalent in cities of all sizes in the United States. At their best, greenways can provide affordable transportation, access to jobs, safe recreation space, community building, biodiversity protection, stormwater drainage, and air and noise quality benefits. Yet, commonly, neoliberal governance and design of greenways leads to diminished social and environmental design in favor of economic development. Intentional design for social, environmental and economic stability is crucial for successful greenways, though they are often viewed as innately sustainable. Urban Political Ecology (UPE), Actor Network Theory (ANT), and Campbell's Sustainable Development are used together as lenses to better understand the greenway development process and its outcomes. This research is a case study of the Roanoke River Greenway (RRG) in Roanoke, Virginia which was conducted in attempt to discover who benefits from the greenway, in what ways, and by what means. Semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and mapping combined to answer research questions. Participants were eleven neighborhood residents, five greenway commissioners, and five city and regional leaders involved with the greenway. Interviews were transcribed, coded, and grouped into themes, along with map data and field notes. These combined to draw conclusions that shed light on the complex system surrounding the RRG. Conclusions are (1) that residents who live near the greenway and want to use it for recreational purposes as well as the City of Roanoke and its elite class of businessowners and homeowning residents who live near the greenway benefit the most from the RRG benefit because the greenway is catered toward recreation and economic development, in form, function, and process, (2) that the system which enables these benefits and prioritizes their beneficiaries is the greenway's evolving planning process, a system both steeped in mindsets of traditional economic development and exclusive planning aesthetics and imbued with innovative approaches of connecting residents to the outdoor environment, and (3) that Roanoke's greenway movement is strong because of its popularity but is vulnerable, because there are no provisions to officially protect it for the future, in terms of maintenance, increased use, and public opinion. Implications for praxis are that communities with greenway trails should diversify the people and perspectives who have power in the planning practice, that environmental and social design should be addressed directly and consistently in greenway development and maintenance, and greater outreach efforts should be made to residents in order to make the greenways more accessible and welcoming to diverse users. Implications for research are investigations into residents who do not use the greenway, for long-term and minority residents.

Forestry best management practices (BMPs) programs were developed by individual states in response to the Clean Water Act in order to protect water quality during and after timber harvests. Our research goals are to compare BMP implementation at stream crossings by region and road type in Virginia and to quantify effectiveness of BMPs by developing hypothetical upgrades and determining upgrade costs. Stream crossings (75 truck, 79 skidder) sampled for BMP implementation were on operational harvests conducted in 2016, from the Mountains, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain of Virginia. Erosion rates of stream crossing approaches were modeled using the Universal Soil Loss Equation modified for forest lands (USLE-Forest) and Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) methodologies. Implementation ratings (BMP-, BMP-standard, BMP+) were developed to characterize crossings with respect to state implementation standards. Costs for upgrading crossings to a higher BMP category were estimated by adjusting cover percentages and approach lengths. Sixty-three percent of stream crossings were classified as BMP-standard, with an average erosion rate of 7.6 Mg/ha/yr; 25% of crossings were classified as BMP+, with an average erosion rate of 1.7 Mg/ha/yr; and 12% of crossings were classified as BMP-, with an average erosion rate of 26.2 Mg/ha/yr. Potential erosion rates decreased with increasing BMP implementation (p <0.0001). Average BMP implementation audit scores for stream crossings were 88% on skid trails and 82% on truck roads. To upgrade from a BMP- to BMP-standard, the cost-benefit ratio of dollars to tons of sediment prevented averaged $166.62/Mg for skid trails and $2274.22/Mg for truck roads. Enhancement to the BMP+ level is not economically efficient and BMP implementation at stream crossings reaches maximum efficiency at the BMP-standard level. / M. S.