A Lei n° 9.433/1997 que institui a Política Nacional de Recursos Hídricos (PNRH) congrega as principais diretrizes de planejamento do uso da água a partir da incorporação de importantes Princípios como o do gerenciamento integrado dos recursos hídricos, gestão participativa, integralidade da bacia hidrográfica como interconexão de sistemas de águas superficiais e subterrâneas para gestão interna, resolução pacífica de conflitos, dentre outros. No contexto transfronteiriço, os contornos da cooperação podem ser tanto um instrumento facilitador como complicador das políticas hídricas a serem executadas, uma vez que à luz do Direito Internacional, as intervenções no território de um Estado devem seguir os Princípios da não intervenção, independência e soberania o que demanda uma política de coordenação internacional entre eles. Para estabelecer os contornos internacionais a respeito do que se pretende acerca de recursos naturais transfronteiriços, é usual o surgimento de regimes específicos, com tratado próprio, muitas vezes excetuado do regramento geral internacional. A fim de analisar o quadro jurídico aplicável no contexto hídrico transfronteiriço amazônico a presente tese parte do ordenamento jurídico brasileiro em matéria de gerenciamento de recursos hídricos e aplica, a partir da dimensão internacional, três esferas de análise dos Princípios da troca de informações e estudos prospectivos, solução pacífica dos conflitos, e da participação pública, nas seguintes perspectivas: 1. multilateral, no âmbito da OTCA; 2. bilateral/trilateral, na formação de instâncias ad hoc para a solução de conflitos; 3. local, na formação de Comitês de bacia internacional. / The Brazilian statute n. 9.433/1997 institutes the National Policy of Water Courses, which contains the most important parameters to set policies in this regard and is widely based on international principles, such as the principles of the integrated management of transboundary basins, integrality of the basins, interconnection between ground and surface water, as well as the peaceful settlement of disputes. Transboundary situations may foster or obtrude cooperation to set and execute water policies, since, accordingly to the international law, a state are not allowed to intervene in the territory of other states, because they are independent and sovereign. The only way to harmonize policies is international cooperation. In order to establish the international limits to the use of natural transboundary resources some international regimes usually arouse and are, sometimes, established by treaties which differ from general international law. Aiming to analyze the legal framework applicable to the Amazon transboundary waters, this thesis starts with a study of the Brazilian legal system regarding water resources management and employs, departing from an international perspective, three levels of analysis of principles that refer to exchange of information, prospective studies, peaceful settlement of disputes, and public participation, from the following perspectives: 1. multilateral, under the ACTO regime 2. Bi- and trilateral, when ad hoc instances are created to settle the disputes 3. Local, through the creation of International Basin Committees

Processos acelerados de globalização induzem a exploração intensiva de recursos naturais em grande escala e a construção de megaprojetos que muitas vezes transpassam as fronteiras dos países. Neste contexto, a Avaliação de Impacto Ambiental Transfronteiriça (AIA-T) se converte em uma ferramenta essencial da gestão ambiental, pois tem o potencial de apoiar a tomada de decisões que podem afetar mais de um país e assim contribuir para evitar conflitos internacionais. Contudo, a implementação desta ferramenta ainda encontra muitos desafios, por tratar de temas delicados e complexos como as relações internacionais ou a soberania dos estados. No contexto mundial, apenas a União Europeia apresenta um marco normativo claro e bem estabelecido para aplicação da AIA-T de projetos, restando às demais regiões um longo caminho a ser percorrido. A América do Sul passa atualmente por um intenso processo de integração física baseado em um amplo programa de investimentos denominado \"Iniciativa para a Integração da Infraestrutura Regional Sul-Americana\" (IIRSA), que vem promovendo alterações ambientais significativas em toda a região, sobretudo no âmbito dos países amazônicos, sem contar com um arcabouço institucional que assegure a avaliação dos impactos transfronteiriços e a sua incorporação aos procedimentos de aprovação e implantação dos projetos associados. Sendo assim, a presente pesquisa de Mestrado visou investigar a existência de marcos institucionais e metodológicos que pudessem fornecer suporte para a aplicação da AIA-T nos países amazônicos e avaliar sua proximidade com os princípios e boas práticas desta ferramenta em nível mundial. Através de revisão bibliográfica, documental e estudos de caso, os resultados encontrados indicam que a AIA-T deve integrar os procedimentos de tomada de decisão que envolvem os países amazônicos, de modo a assegurar o cumprimento dos compromissos internacionais já assumidos em torno da proteção do ecossistema amazônico e o gerenciamento adequado dos impactos ambientais transfronteiriços. / Intensive natural resources exploitation has been accelerated at large scale by globalization processes in the last years, and its impacts might overstep political boundaries. In this scenario, the transboundary environmental impact assessment (hereafter TEIA) has become an integrated approach and essential tool for international environmental management, supporting decision taking processes with the potential to prevent cross border conflicts. Nonetheless, the implementation is still challenging due to the political and social complexity of international relationships and sovereignty of the countries involved. Hitherto just the European Union has been consolidated a clear normative framework in the implementation of TEIA. Conversely in South America this framework is not clear, due to the lack of institutional structure to set up an appropriate environmental assessment scheme, despite that nowadays several megaprojects have been established under the denominated \"Iniciativa para la Integración de la Infraestructura Regional Sur-Americana\" (IIRSA) – the South-American regional integrative infrastructure initiative- and serious pervasive effects associated in the environment have been recorded, being more notorious in the Amazon region, due to the inherent vulnerability of this biome. In this context, the present master dissertation discussed from a comprehensive literature and policies review and study cases, the institutional and methodological framework as the normative base of the TEIA, as well as to assess good practices for environmental impact assessment of development projects in countries within the Amazon biome. In overall TEIA must integrate the decision taking procedures of countries with influence of the Amazon biome in order to guarantee fulfil previously undertaken international agreements that protect the Amazon ecosystem, and the suitable management of environmental impacts at frontiers, and consequently to prevent future scenarios of international dispute.

With climate change and increasing populations, water availability is becoming even more important in the region of Sahel, Africa, where droughts have plagued the states for centuries. In response to this growing concern, seven Sahelian states have initiated cooperation over their shared groundwater resources, an action that is still quite unique globally, given the overlooked status of groundwater. This paper analyses their agreement using Elinor Ostrom’s framework for sustainable collective management of common-pool resources. It concludes that, although the agreement reflects progressive intentions, the attention towards the local levels of governance is insufficient. This conclusion is important specifically for the future of this agreement, and generally feeds into a discussion of governance of larger-scale, transboundary CPRs.

Os recursos hídricos subterrâneos abastecem milhões de pessoas no mundo e constituem a principal reserva hídrica disponível para os seres humanos, contudo sua gestão é precária. A eminência de uma crise hídrica redirecionou os holofotes para os aquíferos transfronteiriços, o que demonstrou sua vulnerabilidade aos riscos e a necessidade de inseri-los nas políticas hídricas nacionais e internacionais. Gradualmente, o sistema internacional busca formas de incluir esses recursos e promover a sua governança e gestão. Esse foi o caso do Aquífero Guarani, alvo de diversos projetos de cooperação que convergiram no único acordo para a gestão conjunta de um aquífero transfronteiriço na América. O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar como o direito internacional e a ordem ambiental internacional trataram a temática das águas subterrâneas e dos aquíferos transfronteiriços e quais são as suas estratégias para combater os riscos que ameaçam esses recursos, com foco no caso do aquífero Guarani. A metodologia utilizada foi a análise qualitativa de documentos internacionais e da bibliografia, e a realização de entrevistas com especialistas sobre o tema. O direito internacional das águas doces, voltado quase que exclusivamente para os cursos de água internacionais, se desdobra para incluir os aquíferos, o que se reflete em várias tentativas da comunidade epistêmica jurídica e na edição da Resolução da Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas nº 63/124 o direito internacional dos aquíferos transfronteiriços. Paralelamente, o sistema internacional, representado por um grupo específico de organizações internacionais busca traçar diretrizes objetivas e universais para esses recursos, tendo elegido a gestão integrada e a boa governança das águas como a melhor forma de protegê-los. Esses conceitos convidam a um aprofundamento da cooperação e a constituição de marcos jurídicos conjuntos, que podem contribuir para a elaboração de algum tipo de política de uso e proteção. Porém não questionam o cerne do problema que é a racionalidade econômica dominante. A cooperação internacional estabelecida entre Argentina, Brasil, Paraguai e Uruguai para o Aquífero Guarani e a assinatura de seu respectivo acordo são fruto desse contexto internacional que tem promovido à temática das águas subterrâneas. O modelo de cooperação adotado no Guarani vai replicar a ordem ambiental e o direito internacional das águas doces e expor seus avanços, limitações e contradições. / Groundwater resources supply millions of people worldwide and constitute the main water reserve available for mankind, but its management is precarious. The eminence of a water crisis redirected the spotlights to transboundary aquifers, which made evident their vulnerability to the risks and the need to insert them in the national and international water policies. Gradually, the international system seeks ways of including these resources and promoting their governance and management. This was the case of the Guarani Aquifer, the target of several cooperation projects that led to the only agreement for the joint management of a transboundary aquifer in America. The aim of this study is to analyze how international law and the environmental order treated the groundwaters and transboundary aquifers and what are their strategies to avoid the risks that threaten these resources, focused on the case of the Guarani Aquifer. The methodology used is the qualitative analysis of international documents and the bibliography on the theme. International water law, directed almost exclusively to surface water resources, makes efforts to include the aquifers, which is reflected in several attempts from the legal epistemic community and the edition of UN Resolution 63/124 the international law of transboundary aquifers. Parallel to this, the international system, represented by a specific group of international organizations, aims at drafting objective and universal guidelines for these resources, having elected the integrated water resources management and good water governance as the best way to protect them. These concepts are an invitation to dive deeper into the cooperation and constitution of joint legal landmarks, which can contribute, at least, to formatting some type of use and protection policy. Nevertheless, they do not question the core problem, which is the dominating economic rationale. The international cooperation established between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay for the Guarani Aquifer and the signature of the respective agreement are the result of this international context that has promoted the groundwater theme. The cooperation model adopted for the Guarani will replicate the international environmental order and international water law and expose their advances, limitations and contradictions.

<p>Transboundary protected areas are a fairly recent concept that have been increasing in popularity and are increasingly being integrated into large international organizations’ environmental policy making. This essay examines the phenomena through the cooperation between two national parks, Parc National des Pyrénées in France and Parque Nacional Ordesa Monte Perdido in Spain. The theoretical framework used in this essay is based upon border theory, focusing on the different factors that influence the behavior of the border dweller and how the different social conceptions of nature influence the way it is managed. The results in this study result from researching published and private documents from the national parks and interviews carried out with staff from the park administrations from both countries. The collaboration between these two national parks dates back twenty years and the cooperation has been carried out in many small projects. Historical ties between the villages in the border region, which also shares a common culture and lingual heritage, have inspired the cooperation. There are also economical benefits that influence the collaboration, such as the European Union’s regional policy that provides funds for transboundary cooperation. A mutual world heritage site, Pyrénées – Mont Perdu, is also situated within the parks’ territories, which should be managed conjointly by the national parks. However, an in-depth and well-integrated cooperation has not been found, as difference in the nature and how the organizations themselves are managed and regulated has generated a long and complicated course for decisions regarding cooperation. It appears that even if nature itself might be boundless, the national jurisdictions that prevail over nature are clearly adhered to and there are no available transboundary structures designed to handle a cooperation of this kind.</p> / <p>Gränsöverskridande naturvård är ett relativt nytt koncept som alltmer ökat i popularitet och även inlemmats i flera stora internationella organisationers naturvårdspolicy. Denna uppsats syftar till att undersöka gränsöverskridande naturvård mellan två angränsande nationalparker, Parc National des Pyrénées i Frankrike och Parque Nacional Ordesa Monte Perdido i Spanien. Uppsatsen har utgått ifrån gränsteoretiska utgångspunkter i form av vilka faktorer som påverkar gränsbeteendet och med särskilt fokus på hur föreställningar om naturen påverkar hur denna förvaltas. Samarbetet har granskats genom dokument publicerade av parkerna samt genom intervjuer med personal i de båda parkerna. Nationalparkerna har under drygt tjugo år haft en viss samverkan som konkretiserats genom flera småskaliga projekt. Samarbetet har inspirerats av en historisk samverkan mellan byarna i gränsregionen som har ett gemensamt språk och kulturarv samt ekonomiska incitament i form av den Europeiska Unionens stöd för samverkan mellan gränsregioner. Inom nationalparkernas område återfinns även ett gemensamt världsarv, Pyrénées – Mont Perdu, som skall förvaltas av nationalparkerna tillsammans. Studien visar dock att en fördjupad samverkan mellan parkerna inte har kunnats implementeras i praktiken, eftersom naturen förvaltas och regleras på olika sätt i de båda nationalparkerna. Skillnader mellan Parc National des Pyrénées och Parque Nacional Ordesas förvaltningsstruktur och administrationssätt gör att beslutsvägen för samarbetsfrågor blir lång och komplicerad. Även om naturen själv är gränslös, visar studien att de bestämmelser som råder över den, är starkt bundna till den nationella organisationsformen och att det i nuläget inte finns någon gränsöverskridande struktur som kan hantera frågor av detta slag.</p>

Transboundary protected areas are a fairly recent concept that have been increasing in popularity and are increasingly being integrated into large international organizations’ environmental policy making. This essay examines the phenomena through the cooperation between two national parks, Parc National des Pyrénées in France and Parque Nacional Ordesa Monte Perdido in Spain. The theoretical framework used in this essay is based upon border theory, focusing on the different factors that influence the behavior of the border dweller and how the different social conceptions of nature influence the way it is managed. The results in this study result from researching published and private documents from the national parks and interviews carried out with staff from the park administrations from both countries. The collaboration between these two national parks dates back twenty years and the cooperation has been carried out in many small projects. Historical ties between the villages in the border region, which also shares a common culture and lingual heritage, have inspired the cooperation. There are also economical benefits that influence the collaboration, such as the European Union’s regional policy that provides funds for transboundary cooperation. A mutual world heritage site, Pyrénées – Mont Perdu, is also situated within the parks’ territories, which should be managed conjointly by the national parks. However, an in-depth and well-integrated cooperation has not been found, as difference in the nature and how the organizations themselves are managed and regulated has generated a long and complicated course for decisions regarding cooperation. It appears that even if nature itself might be boundless, the national jurisdictions that prevail over nature are clearly adhered to and there are no available transboundary structures designed to handle a cooperation of this kind. / Gränsöverskridande naturvård är ett relativt nytt koncept som alltmer ökat i popularitet och även inlemmats i flera stora internationella organisationers naturvårdspolicy. Denna uppsats syftar till att undersöka gränsöverskridande naturvård mellan två angränsande nationalparker, Parc National des Pyrénées i Frankrike och Parque Nacional Ordesa Monte Perdido i Spanien. Uppsatsen har utgått ifrån gränsteoretiska utgångspunkter i form av vilka faktorer som påverkar gränsbeteendet och med särskilt fokus på hur föreställningar om naturen påverkar hur denna förvaltas. Samarbetet har granskats genom dokument publicerade av parkerna samt genom intervjuer med personal i de båda parkerna. Nationalparkerna har under drygt tjugo år haft en viss samverkan som konkretiserats genom flera småskaliga projekt. Samarbetet har inspirerats av en historisk samverkan mellan byarna i gränsregionen som har ett gemensamt språk och kulturarv samt ekonomiska incitament i form av den Europeiska Unionens stöd för samverkan mellan gränsregioner. Inom nationalparkernas område återfinns även ett gemensamt världsarv, Pyrénées – Mont Perdu, som skall förvaltas av nationalparkerna tillsammans. Studien visar dock att en fördjupad samverkan mellan parkerna inte har kunnats implementeras i praktiken, eftersom naturen förvaltas och regleras på olika sätt i de båda nationalparkerna. Skillnader mellan Parc National des Pyrénées och Parque Nacional Ordesas förvaltningsstruktur och administrationssätt gör att beslutsvägen för samarbetsfrågor blir lång och komplicerad. Även om naturen själv är gränslös, visar studien att de bestämmelser som råder över den, är starkt bundna till den nationella organisationsformen och att det i nuläget inte finns någon gränsöverskridande struktur som kan hantera frågor av detta slag.

名古屋大学年代測定総合研究センターシンポジウム報告

In this thesis, I apply the adjoint for the Community Multiscale Air Quality model (hereafter CMAQ-ADJ) in a high spatial resolution study of the sensitivity of ozone to several of its precursors in the regions surrounding the Great Lakes. CMAQ-ADJ was originally developed for low spatial resolution applications. In order to use it in high spatial resolution (12 km) studies, it was necessary to resolve a conflict between the pre-set fixed output time step interval in CMAQ-ADJ and the CMAQ-calculated irregular synchronization time-step and also to modify the meteorological interface for the backward model integrations. To increase computation efficiency, the chemistry time-step in the modified CMAQ-ADJ is checkpointed instead of being re-calculated in the backward part of the model as before. I used the modified model to analyze the sensitivity of ozone to precursor species for cases of assumed high ozone episode in two target locations in southwestern and east-central Ontario. The studies examined the influence of pre-existing ozone, NO, CO, anthropogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and isoprene on ozone level changes for the 69 hours immediately preceding the assumed high ozone event. The results are dominated by the long-distance advection, local meteorology (lake breezes), air temperature, the underlying surface features, and emissions in the pollutant pathway. Both production and titration of ozone by NOx is evident at different times and locations in the simulations. The industrial Midwest U.S. and Ohio Valley have been shown to be an important source of anthropogenic emission of NO and most VOCs that contribute to high ozone events in southwestern and east-central Ontario. Isoprene from the northern forest suppresses ozone in both target regions, with a greater magnitude in east-central Ontario. The response of ozone level in the two selected receptor regions in Ontario to different VOCs depends on the type of VOC, the time and location they are emitted, and the air temperature. Increasing VOC emissions in urban areas such as Toronto and Ottawa in the morning can enhance the ozone level by late afternoon. Increasing VOCs except ethylene and formaldehyde in regions with large VOC/NOx ratio in the morning tends to suppress the ozone level by late afternoon. Among all the species examined, NO has the largest impact on the target ozone level changes. CO is very unlikely to significantly influence the ozone level changes in southwestern or east-central Ontario.

In this thesis, I apply the adjoint for the Community Multiscale Air Quality model (hereafter CMAQ-ADJ) in a high spatial resolution study of the sensitivity of ozone to several of its precursors in the regions surrounding the Great Lakes. CMAQ-ADJ was originally developed for low spatial resolution applications. In order to use it in high spatial resolution (12 km) studies, it was necessary to resolve a conflict between the pre-set fixed output time step interval in CMAQ-ADJ and the CMAQ-calculated irregular synchronization time-step and also to modify the meteorological interface for the backward model integrations. To increase computation efficiency, the chemistry time-step in the modified CMAQ-ADJ is checkpointed instead of being re-calculated in the backward part of the model as before. I used the modified model to analyze the sensitivity of ozone to precursor species for cases of assumed high ozone episode in two target locations in southwestern and east-central Ontario. The studies examined the influence of pre-existing ozone, NO, CO, anthropogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and isoprene on ozone level changes for the 69 hours immediately preceding the assumed high ozone event. The results are dominated by the long-distance advection, local meteorology (lake breezes), air temperature, the underlying surface features, and emissions in the pollutant pathway. Both production and titration of ozone by NOx is evident at different times and locations in the simulations. The industrial Midwest U.S. and Ohio Valley have been shown to be an important source of anthropogenic emission of NO and most VOCs that contribute to high ozone events in southwestern and east-central Ontario. Isoprene from the northern forest suppresses ozone in both target regions, with a greater magnitude in east-central Ontario. The response of ozone level in the two selected receptor regions in Ontario to different VOCs depends on the type of VOC, the time and location they are emitted, and the air temperature. Increasing VOC emissions in urban areas such as Toronto and Ottawa in the morning can enhance the ozone level by late afternoon. Increasing VOCs except ethylene and formaldehyde in regions with large VOC/NOx ratio in the morning tends to suppress the ozone level by late afternoon. Among all the species examined, NO has the largest impact on the target ozone level changes. CO is very unlikely to significantly influence the ozone level changes in southwestern or east-central Ontario.

This thesis consists of an introductory chapter and four papers, which relate to environmental policy in the presence of transboundary environmental damage. Paper [I] concerns public policy in a multi-jurisdiction framework with transboundary environmental damage. Each jurisdiction is assumed large in the sense that its government is able to infuence the world-market producer price of the externality-generating good. This gives rise to additional incentives of relevance for national public policy in the non-cooperative Nash equilibrium. With the uncoordinated equilibrium as the reference case, the welfare effects from coordinated changes in public policy variables are analyzed. Paper [II] analyses welfare effects of coordinated changes in environmental and capital taxation in the presence of transboundary environmental externalities and wage bargaining externalities. In the wage bargaining between frms and labor unions, firms use the threat of moving abroad to moderate wage claims, which means that domestic policy infuences wage formation abroad. The specific framework implies welfare effects of policy coordination that correspond to each of the respective international interaction mentioned above. In paper [III], national governments face political pressure from environmental and industrial lobby groups, while pollution taxes are determined in an international negotiation. It is shown that a general increase in the environmental concern and the weight the governments attach to social welfare both tend to increase the pollution tax. However, allowing for asymmetries between the countries means that a general increase in the environmental concern has the potential to reduce the pollution tax. Paper [IV] studies national environmental policies in an economic federation characterized by decentralized leadership. The federal government sets emission targets for each member country, which are implemented by the national governments. Although all national governments have commitment power vis-à-vis the federal government, one of them also has commitment power vis-à-vis the other member countries. This creates incentives to act strategically toward the federal government, as well as toward other members.