The heat resistance was determined for Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes Scott A suspended in 2% UHT processed milk and in a biofilm matrix. Pure cultures at an initial concentration of 10⁵ / ml were used. Heat resistance was determined by two methods. One method was sealed borosilicate glass TDT tubes that were completely submerged in the heating menstrum. Biofilms were grown on Buna-n rubber o-rings (4.46 mm O.D. x 1.41 mm]. D.) for 36 hours. All other cultures used were in stationary phase of growth. The three treatments tested were: inoculated milk, sterile milk and a biofilm on an o-ring, and inoculated milk with a sterile o-ring. At the three temperatures tested (60, 63, 67°C), there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in D-values between treatments. There was a significant difference (p<0.001) between the D-values for Salmonella and Listeria. The second method used a laboratory scale HTST pasteurizer to determine the difference in heat resistance of the same organisms suspended in 2% milk vs. sloughed off pieces of biofilm in milk. Pure cultures of the organisms at an initial inoculum of 10⁵ / ml were used. Flow rates of the pasteurizer were adjusted to achieve two different F-values for each organism at a reference temperature of 71.7°C. Neither S. typhimurium nor L. monocytogenes Scott A was recovered from pasteurized samples of either treatment. The heating involved in come up and cool down of the transit lines was considered in determining F-value. Under commercial HTST processing, concentrations of 10⁵ / ml of S. typhimurium and L. monocytogenes Scott A would not survive pasteurization. The results also show that if pieces of biofilms (3.8 x 10⁻⁴ mm²- 8.8 x 10⁻³ mm²) were sloughed off gaskets in the processing lines they would not survive pasteurization. The heating characteristics of these two systems were so dissimilar they could not be compared. It should however be noted that in the TDT tubes it was necessary to obtain a slightly higher F-value before no growth was seen as compared with the pasteurizer. In the pasteurizer the laminar flow properties would contribute to a more uniform heating. The TDT tube experiences convection heating which can produce cold spots in the tubes and could explain the need for an increased F-value. / Master of Science

Fresh market tomatoes have been associated with 15 multistate Salmonella outbreaks between 1973 and 2010. While, S. enterica survival has been studied in tomato plants, field studies have been limited. To understand pathogen growth and survival, in crop fields, surrogate or attenuated organisms must be developed and validated. The purpose of this study was to compare the growth and survival of seven attenuated S. enterica Typhimurium and Newport strains against virulent strains S. Typhimurium ATCC14028 and S. Newport J1892 in optimum (TSB and TSB+kan) and minimal M9 growth media, and in commercial, red ripe tomatoes. Bacterial growth in media was assessed via BioScreen. Tomatoes were separately inoculated with 7 Log CFU/g of each isolate via vacuum infiltration, surface spot inoculation, or diced inoculation. Populations of each strain were determined on Days 0, 1, 3, and 5. In media, there were few differences in overall growth and growth rates between mutant isolates and wild-type (P<0.05). Growth in M9 was less (P<0.01), while growth rates were higher (P<0.01) than in TSB. In tomatoes (per treatment), there were no significant differences between growth rates of each isolate compared to WT (P>0.05); however, Salmonella strains in diced tomatoes had a higher growth rate than that in spot treated tomatoes (P>0.05). The growths of all the isolates in tomatoes indicated that under the tested conditions, isolates acted similarly to their WT counterparts. Thus, these strains may be able to be used as surrogate organisms in field studies. / Master of Science in Life Sciences

A gene duplication occurs in Salmonella typhimurium which involves about 30% of the genome. The frequency of formation and loss of this duplication was determined in a Rec.A⁻ strain and a PolA⁻ strain and compared to that of a RecA⁺, PolA⁺ strain. The frequency of formation was found to be reduced in both RecA⁻ and PolA⁻. strains. Loss of the duplication was eliminated in the RecA⁻ strain, while the frequency of loss was found to be greater in a PolA⁻ strain than in the PolA⁺ strain. The effect of UV irradiation on the formation of duplication was also compared for the three strains. There is an increase in the frequency of formation in both the PolA⁺, RecA⁺ and PolA⁻, RecA⁺ strains, the increase being greater in the PolA⁻ strain. The frequency of formation is reduced in the RecA⁻ strain. It is postulated that recA-dependent repair pathways are involved in the formation of the duplication, but there is at least one other pathway available. / Master of Science

A sílica mesoporosa SBA-15 é uma forte candidata para uso como adjuvante por apresentar propriedades vantajosas, como a capacidade de integração com moléculas, baixa toxicidade, boa estabilidade química, térmica e hidrotérmica. Seu potencial adjuvante foi demonstrado em trabalhos onde a SBA-15 associada a antígenos de naturezas distintas foi capaz de induzir uma alta produção de anticorpos específicos quando administrados por via parenteral. Além disso, a SBA-15 diminuiu a toxicidade da toxina diftérica na imunização de cavalos. Os efeitos da SBA-15 na produção de anticorpos com imunizações exclusivamente administradas pela via oral não havia sido testada. Assim, verificou-se a produção de anticorpos em camundongos heterogênicos selecionados para alta (HIII) e baixa (LIII) produção de anticorpos e em animais de fundo genético conhecido (BALB/c), após imunização oral com dois antígenos de naturezas distintas: LPS (antígeno T-independente) e flagelina (antígeno Tdependente), associados a sílica SBA-15. Os camundongos foram inoculados com duas doses de LPS ou flagelina de Salmonella typhimurium, associados ou não a SBA-15, pela via oral ou por via subcutânea. Foram pesquisados anticorpos séricos IgM, IgG e IgA, S-IgA no lavado intestinal e citocinas no soro. Células do linfonodo mesentérico foram coletadas após a imunização oral para caracterização fenotípica. Houve IgM anti-flagelina detectável em BALB/c no período de 37 dias no grupos Fla+SBA-15. Os animais de ambas as linhagens produziram IgG anti-LPS e anti-flagelina em todos os períodos avaliados. Foi encontrada uma pequena diferença significativa em BALB/c, entre os grupos Fla+SBA-15 e Fla após reforço por via oral. Não foi possível detectar IgA sérica nem secretória nos lavados intestinais. Não houve níveis detectáveis de citocinas nos soros do período avaliado. Foram encontrados linfócitos B1, T CD4+ e T CD8+, células dendríticas e moléculas coestimulatórias CD80 e CD86. Houve diferença estatística nas células dendríticas de HIII entre os grupos LPS+SBA-15 e LPS. / Ordered mesoporous sílica SBA-15 is a vaccine adjuvant candidate due to its advantageous properties such as the ability to associate with molecules, low toxicity, and also good chemical, thermal and hydrothermal stability. It has been demonstrated that the association of SBA-15 with several antigens, including toxins, induce high production of specific antibodies when injected parenterally.Since the oral route is natural for most infections, oral vaccination would be suitable for immunization against several diseases. Thus, we verified the antibody production of the non-isogenic mice selected for high (HIII) and low (LIII)antibody response after oral immunization with two antigens with distinct nature: LPS (T-independent antigen) and flagellin (Tdependent antigen), associated with silica SBA-15 Three mice per groupwere orally inoculated (gavage) with twodoses of LPS (75&#956;g) or Salmonella typhimurium flagellin (50&#956;g) adsorbed/encapsulated or not to SBA-15 at a 1:10 ratio on days 0 and 30. Blood sampleswere collectedon days 7 and 37andIgG serum levels were determined by ELISA.There was an increasing in antibody levels in HIII animalsi mmunized with both antigens associated with silica when compared to those immunized with antigen alone. We observed highest antibody levels in two of three HIII mice immunized with both antigens, although, due to the small sample, no significant differences were found between groups treated with silica or not. No significant difference was observed in LIII animals. The oral adjuvant effect of silica is encouraging by these preliminary results but must be confirmed by further experiments with a larger number of animals.

A leptospirose é uma zoonose de importância global causada por espiroquetas patogênicas do gênero Leptospira. Foi avaliado o potencial adjuvante da flagelina FliCi de Salmonella enterica sorovar Thyphimurium na indução de resposta imunoprotetora em uma formulação vacinal acelular composta pela proteína LigAc e por seis prováveis lipoproteínas de membrana externa recombinantes de Leptospira interrogans sorovar Copenhageni como alternativa profilática. Grupos de hamsters imunizados com LigAc co-administrada com o pool das proteínas acrescidas de FliCi ou Al(OH)3 apresentaram altos títulos de anticorpos contra as proteínas recombinantes e foram protegidos do desafio letal (86-100%). Grupos imunizados com vacina comercial, bacterina ou pool+LigAc+FliCi apresentaram redução na colonização renal (0-28%). Dados sugerem aumento da expressão dos genes das citocinas de resposta Th1/Th2. Os resultados demonstram que novas formulações vacinais, compostas por proteínas recombinantes e flagelina FliCi como adjuvante, é um caminho promissor. / Leptospirosis is a global zoonotic disease caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. In the present study, we evaluated the adjuvant activity of Salmonella enterica FliCi flagellin in the protective immunity induced by the LigAc and also by six other novel recombinant leptospiral outer membrane lipoproteins (OMP) of Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni. Immunization of hamsters with LigAc or LigAc coadministered with OMPs cocktail, both with FliCi or Al(OH)3, induced robust antibody responses against recombinant proteins, and conferred protection after challenge (86-100%). Moreover, only groups inoculated with the commercial vaccine, bacterin or LigAc coadministered with OMPs cocktail and FliCi as adjuvant showed reduced bacterial load in kidneys (0-28%) with significant enhancement of gene expression of both Th1 and Th2 cytokines. Taken together, our data pave the way for the development of novel vaccine formulations against leptospirosis, using recombinant proteins and FliCi as adjuvant.

Die molekularbiologische Untersuchung der Wechselwirkungen zwischen Pathogenen und ihren Wirtszellen ist ein wertvoller Ansatz zur Erschließung bakterieller Pathogenitätsmechanismen und hilft, unser ständig wachsendes Wissen über fundamentale Prozesse in eukaryotischen Zellen zu erweitern. Das Gram-negative Bakterium Salmonella Typhimurium ist ein gängiger Modellorganismus, um den intrazellulären Lebensstil bakterieller Pathogene und deren Einfluss auf Wirtszellprozesse zu erforschen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein FACS-basierter Hochdurchsatz RNA Interferenz Screen etabliert und durchgeführt, um Wirtszellfaktoren zu entschlüsseln, welche in die intrazelluläre Replikation von Salmonella Typhimurium in humanen Epithelzellen involviert sind. Ein Salmonellen-Stamm, der zwei fluoreszierende Reporterproteine exprimiert, wurde konstruiert, um die bakterielle Replikation und die metabolische Aktivität in infizierten Wirtszellen zu detektieren. Der Einsatz einer humanen Kinase-Bibliothek lieferte 48 potentielle Kandidatengene, von denen 15 in einer anschließenden Validierung als relevante Faktoren identifiziert werden konnten. Die Mitogen-aktivierte Protein Kinase MKK7, deren Depletion eine verminderte bakterielle Replikation zur Folge hatte, wurde für eine weitergehende funktionelle Charakterisierung ausgewählt. Es zeigte sich, dass reduzierte MKK7 Proteinmengen eine Verringerung des Proteins zytosolische Phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) durch eine transkriptionelle Regulation zur Folge hatten. Die Bedeutung von cPLA2 für die bakterielle Infektion wurde durch die Salmonellen-induzierte, dauerhafte Phosphorylierung des Faktors deutlich und konnte durch Replikationsvergleiche in cPLA2-depletierten und nicht-depletierten Zellen bestätigt werden. Mikroskopische Ergebnisse deuteten darauf hin, dass die Phospholipase für den fehlerfreien Aufbau von Salmonellen-induzierten Filamenten notwendig ist, welche unerlässlich für die Salmonellenreplikation in Epithelzellen sind. / The study of pathogen-host cell interactions on the molecular level is a valuable tool to reveal bacterial pathogenicity mechanisms and, moreover, contributes to our increasing knowledge of fundamental cellular processes of eukaryotic cells. The Gram negative bacterium Salmonella Typhimurium is a well established model organism to investigate the intracellular lifestyle of bacterial pathogens and their modulation of host cell processes. In this work, a FACS-based high-throughput RNA interference screen was established and performed to elucidate host cell factors involved in the intracellular replication of Salmonella Typhimurium. A Salmonella strain expressing two fluorescent reporter constructs was generated which allowed for monitoring the bacterial replication and metabolic activity within infected cells. A human kinome-wide siRNA library was screened and 48 candidates were chosen for further validation. Among these, 15 host cell genes were identified to influence Salmonella intracellular replication. The mitogen activated protein kinase MKK7, whose depletion caused a decrease in bacterial replication, was selected for a more profound functional characterization. It could be demonstrated that the knock down of MKK7 caused a decrease in phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) protein levels due to a transcriptional regulation. A role for cPLA2 during the bacterial intracellular lifestyle was implicated by the finding that Salmonella induced a permanent phosphorylation of the phospholipase. The necessity of cPLA2 was confirmed with replication assays in cPLA2 depleted cells using siRNA and shRNA mediated knock down strategies. Microscopic experiments indicated that the phospholipase A2 is involved in the accurate generation of Salmonella-induced filaments, structures that were reported to be indispensable for replication.

O Objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver uma estratégia vacinal de utilizando linhagens de salmonellas capazes de expressar uma forma atoxica da principal toxina associada a linhagens de EHEC que causa a síndrome hemolítica urémica. Estas linhagens de salmonellas diferem na expressão de flagelina, a principal unidade estrutural do flagelo. As linhagens foram capazes de expressar uma forma atóxica da proteína \"Shiga-like\" no interior da bactéria e no espaço extracelular, apresentaram alta estabilidade plasmidial in vitro e in vivo e foram capazes de aumentar o grau de colonização intestinal. Além disso, avaliamos o potencial imunogênico de estas linhagens e encontramos que a imunização com três doses de salmonelas foram capazes de gerar anticorpos sistêmicos (IgG) e locais (IgA) com propriedades neutralizantes in vitro e proteção parcial em condições in vivo frente a ensaios de desafios com a toxina nativa. Não fomos capazes de encontrar diferencias significativas em lãs propriedades imunogênicas entre as linhagens que diferem na expressão de flagelina. Nossos resultados indicam que formas atóxicas da proteína Stx2 expressadas em vetores biológicos podem ser uma alternativa de estratégia vacinal para controlar a SHU. / The goal of this study was to develop a vaccine strategy of using Salmonella strains capable of expressing a nontoxic form of the main toxin associated with EHEC strains that cause hemolytic uremic syndrome. These strains of Salmonella differ in flagellin expression, the main structural unit of the flagellum. The strains were capable of expressing a nontoxic form of the protein \"Shiga-like\" within the bacteria and the extracellular space, showed high plasmid stability in vitro and in vivo and were able to increase the degree of intestinal colonization. Furthermore, we evaluated the immunogenic potential of these strains and found that immunization with three doses of salmonella were able to generate (IgA) humoral and (IgG) systemic antibodies with neutralizing properties in vitro and partial protection in vivo conditions facing trials challenges with the native toxin. We were unable to find significant differences in the immunogenic properties between these strains that differ in flagellin expression. Our results indicate that nontoxic forms of Stx2 expressed in biological vectors can be an alternative vaccine strategy to control the SHU.

O reconhecimento da flagelina pelos NLRs Naip5 e NLRC4 leva à formação do complexo multiproteico denominado inflamassoma que culmina na ativação da caspase-1, com consequente clivagem da forma inativa das citocinas pró-inflamatórias IL-1b e IL-18 e morte da célula infectada. Neste trabalho pudemos observar que in vitro, a maturação de BMDCs com a estimulação com flagelina citosólica, inserida em vesículas lipídicas que permitem a transfecção da flagelina para o citosol, foi independente da ativação de NLRC4, caspase-1 e TLR5, mas somente de MyD88. Já a ativação de linfócitos T por estas BMDCs ativadas por flagelina citosólica é dependente de caspase-1 e MyD88. A neutralização da citocina IL-1a, levou à inibição da ativação de linfócitos T, indicando a contribuição desta para a montagem de resposta imune. A neutralização de IL-1a também levou a uma redução na produção de IL-12, que seria a citocina responsável pela polarização dos linfócitos para Th1. A imunização com flagelina leva ao desenvolvimento de imunidade protetora contra o desafio com S. typhimurium, igualmente dependente de caspase-1 e MyD88. Podemos dizer que a flagelina induz resposta imune tanto in vivo quanto in vitro e que, em ambos os casos, há a participação das moléculas caspase-1 e MyD88. / TLR5 activates inflammatory genes through MyD88 pathway whereas NLRC4 and NAIP5 assemble multiprotein complexes called inflammasomes, leading to caspase-1 activation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1 and IL-18. Cytosolic flagellin (FLA-BSDot) induced upregulation of costimulatory molecules independent on TLR5, NLRC4 and Caspase-1, but dependent on MyD88. In addition, FLA-BSDot-stimulated OVA-pulsed BMDCs induced proliferation and production of IFN by OT-II splenocytes, dependent on caspase-1 and MyD88. FLA-BSDot stimulation leads to the secretion of IL-1 and IL-1. Neutralization of IL-1 inhibited BMDCs maturation in response to FLA-BSDot and led to decreased IFN production by OT-II splenocytes. Searching for the effector mechanism by which IL-1 induces Th1 polarization in response to FLA-BSDot, we observed a significant reduction in IL-12 production when IL-1 was neutralized. Also, we could see that adaptive immune responses induced by flagellin in vivo was protective against S.typhimurium lethal challenge, showing again a role for caspase-1 and MyD88. From these data we can infer that caspase-1 and MyD88 are both involved in the adaptive response induced by flagelin both in vitro and in vivo.

O reconhecimento da flagelina pelos NLRs Naip5 e NLRC4 leva à formação do complexo multiproteico denominado inflamassoma que culmina na ativação da caspase-1, com consequente clivagem da forma inativa das citocinas pró-inflamatórias IL-1b e IL-18 e morte da célula infectada. Neste trabalho pudemos observar que in vitro, a maturação de BMDCs com a estimulação com flagelina citosólica, inserida em vesículas lipídicas que permitem a transfecção da flagelina para o citosol, foi independente da ativação de NLRC4, caspase-1 e TLR5, mas somente de MyD88. Já a ativação de linfócitos T por estas BMDCs ativadas por flagelina citosólica é dependente de caspase-1 e MyD88. A neutralização da citocina IL-1a, levou à inibição da ativação de linfócitos T, indicando a contribuição desta para a montagem de resposta imune. A neutralização de IL-1a também levou a uma redução na produção de IL-12, que seria a citocina responsável pela polarização dos linfócitos para Th1. A imunização com flagelina leva ao desenvolvimento de imunidade protetora contra o desafio com S. typhimurium, igualmente dependente de caspase-1 e MyD88. Podemos dizer que a flagelina induz resposta imune tanto in vivo quanto in vitro e que, em ambos os casos, há a participação das moléculas caspase-1 e MyD88. / TLR5 activates inflammatory genes through MyD88 pathway whereas NLRC4 and NAIP5 assemble multiprotein complexes called inflammasomes, leading to caspase-1 activation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1 and IL-18. Cytosolic flagellin (FLA-BSDot) induced upregulation of costimulatory molecules independent on TLR5, NLRC4 and Caspase-1, but dependent on MyD88. In addition, FLA-BSDot-stimulated OVA-pulsed BMDCs induced proliferation and production of IFN by OT-II splenocytes, dependent on caspase-1 and MyD88. FLA-BSDot stimulation leads to the secretion of IL-1 and IL-1. Neutralization of IL-1 inhibited BMDCs maturation in response to FLA-BSDot and led to decreased IFN production by OT-II splenocytes. Searching for the effector mechanism by which IL-1 induces Th1 polarization in response to FLA-BSDot, we observed a significant reduction in IL-12 production when IL-1 was neutralized. Also, we could see that adaptive immune responses induced by flagellin in vivo was protective against S.typhimurium lethal challenge, showing again a role for caspase-1 and MyD88. From these data we can infer that caspase-1 and MyD88 are both involved in the adaptive response induced by flagelin both in vitro and in vivo.

The cytosolic protein degradation pathway, performed by ATP-dependent proteases and ATP-independent peptidases, plays important roles in several cellular activities, e.g. cell division, cell cycle progression, intracellular signaling, MHC class I antigen presentation, host-pathogen interactions, etc. The roles of ATP-dependent proteases during stress and infection have been studied in great detail but the functional roles of ATP-independent peptidases are not clearly understood. In this study, the functional roles of E. coli or S. typhimurium encoded Peptidase N (PepN), an ATP-independent enzyme belonging to theM1 family of metallopeptidases, were investigated. The thesis will address four different aspects. (i) In the first part, the utility of using E coli ∆pepN to identify and characterize novel peptidases will be shown. It is known that deletion of pepN leads to inability to cleave the majority of in vitro peptidase substrates in E. coli and S. typhimurium. To study the differences between two closely related paralogs of the M17 family, E. coli encoded pepA and pepB were cloned in pBAD24 vector and introduced in E. coli ∆pepN. Peptidase A (PepA) and Peptidase B (PepB) expression increases the cleavage of several aminopeptidase substrates and partially rescues growth of ∆pepN during nutritional downshift and high temperature stress (NDHT), a dual stress involving growth in minimal media at 42°C. Purified PepA and PepB enzymes display broad substrate specificity; however, distinct differences are observed between these two paralogs: PepA is more stable at high temperature whereas PepB displays broader substrate specificity as it cleaves Asp and Insulin B chain peptide. The strategy utilized in this study, i.e. overexpression of peptidases in ∆pepN followed by screening for substrate specificities in total cell extracts, may be used to rapidly identify the substrate preferences of novel peptidases encoded in genomes of different organisms. (ii) The second aspect investigates the functional roles of PepN during stress and infection in S. typhimurium. PepN has two conserved signature motifs of the M1 family, GAMEN and HEXXH, which play roles in substrate recognition and catalysis. To address the roles of catalytic activity of PepN, the residue E-298, which is present in the HEXXH motif and acts as a general base during catalysis, was mutated to A-298 by site-specific mutagenesis and introduced into ∆pepN (pBR322/pepNE298A). Biochemical and biophysical analysis of purified PepN (WT and E298A) revealed loss of catalytic activity of E298A but no major structural changes were observed in comparison to the WT protein. The functional roles of this mutation using ∆pepN expressing pBR322/pepN or pBR322/pepNE298A were investigated using two conditions: (i) Nutritional downshift high temperature (NDHT)stress and (ii) systemic infection in mice. Monitoring growth profiles of different strains demonstrated the requirement of the enzymatic activity of PepN for adaptation and growth to NDHT stress. Earlier studies have shown that S. typhimurium ∆pepN hyper proliferates in peripheral organs during systemic infection in mice. However, expression of wild type (WT)or E298A PepN led to lower colony forming units (CFU), demonstrating that the decrease in CFU is independent of catalytic activity. These observations are consistent with lower serum amounts of inflammatory cytokines, lower tissue damage and increase in survival of mice infected with S. typhimurium expressing WT or E298A PepN. (iii) Although pathogen encoded peptidases are known to be important during infection, their roles in modulating host responses in immunocompromised individuals are not well studied. In the third part of this thesis, the roles of S. typhimurium encoded PepN were studied in mice lacking Interferon-γ (Ifnγ), a cytokine important for immunity. S. typhimurium lacking pepN displays enhanced CFU compared to WT in peripheral organs during systemic infection in C57BL/6 mice. However, Ifnγ-/-mice show higher CFU compared to C57BL/6 mice, resulting in lower fold differences between WT and ∆pepN. Concomitantly, reintroduction of pepN in ∆pepN reduces CFU, demonstrating pepN dependence. In addition, three distinct differences were observed between infection ofC57BL/6 and Ifnγ-/-mice upon infection with different S. typhimurium strains: (i) cytokine profiles, (ii) histological analysis and (iii) mice survival. Overall, the roles of the host encoded Ifnγ during infection with S. typhimurium strains with varying degrees of virulence will be highlighted. (iv) The final aspect of this study reveals differences in gene expression between S. typhimurium grown in rich medium (Luria-Bertani) versus NDHT stress. This adaptation affects several pathways and the gene expression of secretory proteins that are important for virulence in S. typhimurium are greatly reduced during NDHT stress. Also, analysis of secretory protein amounts in different media conditions shows reduction during growth in minimal media plus high temperature stress. The functional consequences of this reduction in secretory protein amounts lead to lower bacterial replication after infection of RAW cells or mice infected via the oral route. In addition, the differences in gene expression between WT and ∆pepN during these conditions were studied. Interestingly, there is reduction in expression of flagellar genes whereas the genes involved in nitrogen metabolism are upregulated in ∆pepN upon exposure to NDHT stress. Further studies were performed by quantifying the motility of different S. typhimurium strains grown in a variety of culture conditions. Overall, this part of the study attempts to compare and contrast the possible adaptive responses of WT and ∆pepN to NDHT stress. Together, this thesis addresses multiple aspects of the biochemistry and roles of the enigmatic PepN during stress and infection.