Depuis la création de l'Union soviétique jusqu'à sa dissolution, la mer Caspienne appartenait à l'Iran et à l'URSS, qui constituaient ses deux seuls États riverains. Ces derniers avaient convenu de gérer la Caspienne «en commun », selon un régime de condominium, dans deux accords bilatéraux signés en 1921 et 1940. Cependant, après le démembrement de l'Union soviétique en 1991, trois nouveaux États indépendants et riverains de la Caspienne (1'Azerbaïdjan, le Kazakhstan et le Turkménistan) se sont ajoutés à l'équation, et ont exigé une révision du régime juridique conventionnel en vigueur. Ainsi, des négociations multilatérales ont été entamées, lesquelles ont mis en relief plusieurs questions juridiques faisant l'objet d'interprétation divergente: Le régime juridique conventionnel de 1921 et de 1940 (établissant une gestion en commun) est-il toujours valable dans la nouvelle conjoncture? Les nouveaux États riverains successeurs de l'Union soviétique sont-ils tenus de respecter les engagements de l'ex-URSS envers l'Iran quant à la Caspienne? Quel est l'ordre juridique applicable à la mer Caspienne? Serait-ce le droit de la mer (UNCLOS) ou le droit des traités? La notion de rebus sic stantibus - soit le « changement fondamental de circonstances» - aurait-elle pour effet l'annulation des traités de 1921 et de 1940? Les divisions administratives internes effectuées en 1970 par l'URSS pour délimiter la mer sont-elles valides aujourd'hui, en tant que frontières maritimes? Dans la présente recherche, nous prendrons position en faveur de la validité du régime juridique établi par les traités de 1921 et de 1940 et nous soutiendrons la position des États qui revendiquent la transmission des engagements de l'ex-URSS envers l'Iran aux nouveaux États riverains. Pour cela nous effectuerons une étude complète de la situation juridique de la mer Caspienne en droit international et traiterons chacune des questions mentionnées ci-dessus. Le droit des traités, le droit de la succession d'États, la Convention des Nations Unies du droit de la mer de 1982, la doctrine, la jurisprudence de la C.I.J et les positions des États riverains de la Caspienne à l'ONU constituent nos sources pour l'analyse détaillée de cette situation. / From the creation of the Soviet Union to its dissolution, the Caspian Sea belonged to Iran and the USSR, which were its only two littoral States. The Caspian was, during this period, governed by two bilateral agreements signed in 1921 and 1940, in which the two States had agreed to “jointly” manage the Sea. However, after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 gave birth to three newly independent States (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan) with coast lines along the Caspian Sea, these three new actors demanded with insistence that the existing treaty-based regime be revised. During the course of the ensuing negotiations, several legal questions have been raised: Is the treaty-based legal regime established by the 1921 and 1940 treaties still valid in the new regional configuration? Are the newly independent States, successors to the USSR, obliged to respect the former Union's legal obligations towards Iran? If not, what is the appropriate legal regime applicable to the Caspian? Is it the law of the Sea (as defined mostly in the UNCLOS) or the law of treaties? Considering the new regional configuration, does the concept of rebus sic stantibus - or the fundamental change of circumstances - invalidate the 1921 and 1940 treaties? Will the internal administrative divisions established in 1970 by the former Soviet Union with regards to the Caspian become - de jure - the new international maritime frontiers? In this thesis, we argue in favour of the validity of the legal regime established by the 1921 and 1940 treaties and we support the position of those States which assert the transmissibility of the obligations of the former Union to the newly independent littoral States. In doing so, we will provide a complete analysis of the legal dilemma at hand and suggest appropriate analytical answers to the aforementioned questions. The law of treaties, the law of the succession of States, the 1982 United Nations' Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), doctrinal commentaries, case law of the I.C.J, and official U.N documents revealing the positions of each littoral States will be thoroughly conversed in this regard.

A presente tese pretende analisar uma possível proibição de utilização de métodos letais em pesquisas científicas com baleias em alto-mar, no sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar, inserida em um contexto marcado por uma binariedade ou dualidade normativa entre Estados pró e contra a pesca internacional da baleia. A fim de responder esse problema de pesquisa estabelecido, a tese desenvolve, em um primeiro momento, a noção inovadora do Direito Internacional do Mar como sistema. Para tanto, partiu-se da noção do Direito Internacional como um sistema social de validação normativa, onde as noções de técnica positiva de resolução de controvérsias internacionais, função, processo, comunicação social e tempo, tornamse a sua gramática comum. Em tal perspectiva sistêmica e social do Direito Internacional, são demonstradas as comunicações normativas e institucionais para caracterizar o Direito Internacional do Mar como um sistema funcional de regulação global dos oceanos. Tal compreensão, desenvolvida na primeira Parte da tese, levará a um segundo momento de análise em torno da proteção jurídica das baleias no sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar. Baseada na observação do regime tradicional de proteção jurídica das baleias, enquanto fenômeno de produção de sentido normativo, a tese desenvolve as principais controvérsias estabelecidas antes e após a Segunda Guerra Mundial – entre estabilidade e transformação –, bem como o regime jurídico da Convenção Internacional para a Regulamentação da Pesca da Baleia de 1946. Em uma leitura da proteção jurídica das baleias vinculada ao sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar, serão reveladas as (in)suficiências normativas do Artigo VIII, parágrafo 1º, da Convenção de 1946 e as suas relações com o julgamento do Whaling in the Antarctic pela Corte Internacional de Justiça (ICJ), em 2014. Por fim, a partir de uma metodologia sistêmico-pragmática de análise, será desenvolvida a tese da proibição de utilização de métodos letais em pesquisas científicas com baleias em alto-mar, vinculada ao sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar e, mais especificamente, com base na Convenção das Nações Unidas sobre o Direito do Mar (UNCLOS). / This thesis analyses the possibility of prohibition against the use of lethal methods in scientific whaling on the high seas under the current International Law of the Sea system, which is marked by a normative binarity or duality between states both for and against international whaling. In order to answer the research question proposed, this thesis develops, at first, the innovative notion of the International Law of the Sea as a system. For such purpose, this thesis initiates with the notion of International Law as a social system for normative validity, whereby the elements of positive technique for international settlement of disputes, function, process, social communication and time become its common syntax. In such a systemic and social perspective of International Law, this thesis demonstrates the normative and the institutional conveyance for characterizing International Law of the Sea as a functional system for the global regulation of the oceans. Such understanding, developed within the first part of this thesis, will lead to the analysis of the legal protection of whales within the International Law of the Sea system. Based on the observation of the traditional regime of legal protection of whales as a normative phenomenon, this thesis examines the main controversies that were established both before and after the Second World War – amid stability and transformation – as well as the legal regime of the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Within the scope of the legal protection of whales attached to the normative system of the International Law of the Sea, this thesis reveals the normative (in)sufficiency of the paragraph 1 of Article VIII of the 1946 Convention and its relationship to the 2014 Whaling in the Antarctic judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Lastly, within a systemic-pragmatic methodology of analysis, this thesis develops the prohibition theory of the use of lethal methods in scientific whaling on the high seas as established through the International Law of the Sea system and, more specifically, on the basis of the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

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ABSTRACT " Once it was said that the law followed the flag. Now, international law is everywhere. Its influence increases. " Sovereignty is no longer an intra-national concept within International Law. It now involves a greater consideration of issues concerning the global community. This thesis develops a practical methodology for the determination of sovereignty over maritime natural resources. Customary international law regarding the use of resources within the maritime zones of islands on the high seas is rapidly developing. Traditional tests, such as the discovery and occupation of islands, are no longer the primary focus of the determination of sovereignty. The methodology expressed in this thesis is an application and adaptation of the current state of the international laws regarding islands within the high seas. This argument has its foundation in the new international treaties, recent decisions of the International Court of Justice, the Permanent Court of Arbitration and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. It unifies the latest determinations and theoretical legal perspectives of these bodies to produce a single methodology. This work provides an original and substantial contribution to the knowledge and understanding of sovereignty issues within International Law. The Chapters of this thesis and their sub-headings progressively illuminate the individual elements of a distinctive formula for determining the sovereignty of islands within the high seas. The Chapters form a template for this methodology, which is applied to the Falkland Islands. Thus, each chapter is a step towards the determination of sovereignty. This modus operandi can be applied to new disputes in this realm, such as those filed with the International Court of Justice. Since 1982, the definitive ownership of the Falkland Islands proper has been determined, if not by International Law, then by warfare. However, conflict over the use of natural resources in the maritime zones continues.

A presente tese pretende analisar uma possível proibição de utilização de métodos letais em pesquisas científicas com baleias em alto-mar, no sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar, inserida em um contexto marcado por uma binariedade ou dualidade normativa entre Estados pró e contra a pesca internacional da baleia. A fim de responder esse problema de pesquisa estabelecido, a tese desenvolve, em um primeiro momento, a noção inovadora do Direito Internacional do Mar como sistema. Para tanto, partiu-se da noção do Direito Internacional como um sistema social de validação normativa, onde as noções de técnica positiva de resolução de controvérsias internacionais, função, processo, comunicação social e tempo, tornamse a sua gramática comum. Em tal perspectiva sistêmica e social do Direito Internacional, são demonstradas as comunicações normativas e institucionais para caracterizar o Direito Internacional do Mar como um sistema funcional de regulação global dos oceanos. Tal compreensão, desenvolvida na primeira Parte da tese, levará a um segundo momento de análise em torno da proteção jurídica das baleias no sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar. Baseada na observação do regime tradicional de proteção jurídica das baleias, enquanto fenômeno de produção de sentido normativo, a tese desenvolve as principais controvérsias estabelecidas antes e após a Segunda Guerra Mundial – entre estabilidade e transformação –, bem como o regime jurídico da Convenção Internacional para a Regulamentação da Pesca da Baleia de 1946. Em uma leitura da proteção jurídica das baleias vinculada ao sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar, serão reveladas as (in)suficiências normativas do Artigo VIII, parágrafo 1º, da Convenção de 1946 e as suas relações com o julgamento do Whaling in the Antarctic pela Corte Internacional de Justiça (ICJ), em 2014. Por fim, a partir de uma metodologia sistêmico-pragmática de análise, será desenvolvida a tese da proibição de utilização de métodos letais em pesquisas científicas com baleias em alto-mar, vinculada ao sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar e, mais especificamente, com base na Convenção das Nações Unidas sobre o Direito do Mar (UNCLOS). / This thesis analyses the possibility of prohibition against the use of lethal methods in scientific whaling on the high seas under the current International Law of the Sea system, which is marked by a normative binarity or duality between states both for and against international whaling. In order to answer the research question proposed, this thesis develops, at first, the innovative notion of the International Law of the Sea as a system. For such purpose, this thesis initiates with the notion of International Law as a social system for normative validity, whereby the elements of positive technique for international settlement of disputes, function, process, social communication and time become its common syntax. In such a systemic and social perspective of International Law, this thesis demonstrates the normative and the institutional conveyance for characterizing International Law of the Sea as a functional system for the global regulation of the oceans. Such understanding, developed within the first part of this thesis, will lead to the analysis of the legal protection of whales within the International Law of the Sea system. Based on the observation of the traditional regime of legal protection of whales as a normative phenomenon, this thesis examines the main controversies that were established both before and after the Second World War – amid stability and transformation – as well as the legal regime of the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Within the scope of the legal protection of whales attached to the normative system of the International Law of the Sea, this thesis reveals the normative (in)sufficiency of the paragraph 1 of Article VIII of the 1946 Convention and its relationship to the 2014 Whaling in the Antarctic judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Lastly, within a systemic-pragmatic methodology of analysis, this thesis develops the prohibition theory of the use of lethal methods in scientific whaling on the high seas as established through the International Law of the Sea system and, more specifically, on the basis of the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

A presente tese pretende analisar uma possível proibição de utilização de métodos letais em pesquisas científicas com baleias em alto-mar, no sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar, inserida em um contexto marcado por uma binariedade ou dualidade normativa entre Estados pró e contra a pesca internacional da baleia. A fim de responder esse problema de pesquisa estabelecido, a tese desenvolve, em um primeiro momento, a noção inovadora do Direito Internacional do Mar como sistema. Para tanto, partiu-se da noção do Direito Internacional como um sistema social de validação normativa, onde as noções de técnica positiva de resolução de controvérsias internacionais, função, processo, comunicação social e tempo, tornamse a sua gramática comum. Em tal perspectiva sistêmica e social do Direito Internacional, são demonstradas as comunicações normativas e institucionais para caracterizar o Direito Internacional do Mar como um sistema funcional de regulação global dos oceanos. Tal compreensão, desenvolvida na primeira Parte da tese, levará a um segundo momento de análise em torno da proteção jurídica das baleias no sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar. Baseada na observação do regime tradicional de proteção jurídica das baleias, enquanto fenômeno de produção de sentido normativo, a tese desenvolve as principais controvérsias estabelecidas antes e após a Segunda Guerra Mundial – entre estabilidade e transformação –, bem como o regime jurídico da Convenção Internacional para a Regulamentação da Pesca da Baleia de 1946. Em uma leitura da proteção jurídica das baleias vinculada ao sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar, serão reveladas as (in)suficiências normativas do Artigo VIII, parágrafo 1º, da Convenção de 1946 e as suas relações com o julgamento do Whaling in the Antarctic pela Corte Internacional de Justiça (ICJ), em 2014. Por fim, a partir de uma metodologia sistêmico-pragmática de análise, será desenvolvida a tese da proibição de utilização de métodos letais em pesquisas científicas com baleias em alto-mar, vinculada ao sistema de Direito Internacional do Mar e, mais especificamente, com base na Convenção das Nações Unidas sobre o Direito do Mar (UNCLOS). / This thesis analyses the possibility of prohibition against the use of lethal methods in scientific whaling on the high seas under the current International Law of the Sea system, which is marked by a normative binarity or duality between states both for and against international whaling. In order to answer the research question proposed, this thesis develops, at first, the innovative notion of the International Law of the Sea as a system. For such purpose, this thesis initiates with the notion of International Law as a social system for normative validity, whereby the elements of positive technique for international settlement of disputes, function, process, social communication and time become its common syntax. In such a systemic and social perspective of International Law, this thesis demonstrates the normative and the institutional conveyance for characterizing International Law of the Sea as a functional system for the global regulation of the oceans. Such understanding, developed within the first part of this thesis, will lead to the analysis of the legal protection of whales within the International Law of the Sea system. Based on the observation of the traditional regime of legal protection of whales as a normative phenomenon, this thesis examines the main controversies that were established both before and after the Second World War – amid stability and transformation – as well as the legal regime of the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Within the scope of the legal protection of whales attached to the normative system of the International Law of the Sea, this thesis reveals the normative (in)sufficiency of the paragraph 1 of Article VIII of the 1946 Convention and its relationship to the 2014 Whaling in the Antarctic judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Lastly, within a systemic-pragmatic methodology of analysis, this thesis develops the prohibition theory of the use of lethal methods in scientific whaling on the high seas as established through the International Law of the Sea system and, more specifically, on the basis of the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

The topic of this master thesis is the international legal regulation of the protection of marine mammals. The thesis concentrates primarily on the analysis of the species based international law instruments for the protection of the individual marine mammal species. This thesis is divided into six chapters. The first chapter addresses the main principles of the international environmental law, which have the biggest influence on the protection of marine mammals (biodiversity protection, precautionary principle and sustainable development). The second chapter describes the regulation of fisheries, which is closely related to the protection of marine mammals. This part deals with the historical beginning of the international regulation of fisheries, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the division of the sea areas, regulation of individual fish species and the regulation of fisheries after the UNCLOS. The particular instruments of protection of individual species of marine mammals except Cetaceans are described in the third chapter (i.e. polar bears, Pinnipeds and Sirenidae). The protection of Cetaceans is analyzed in detail in the fourth chapter. The protection of whales on the ground of International Whaling Commission is accented. This chapter describes also the standpoint of the whaling countries...

This thesis analyses the American policy of sustaining freedom of navigation on the seas through its Freedom of Navigation Program (FON Program). It analyses Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs) as a means of maintain the current system of the law of the sea as put forth by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. (UNCLOS) The thesis deals with law of the sea history, it also describes and analyses the Convention itself. Another topic discussed is the unique position of United States as a power guaranteeing the current regime of the seas, while staying out of the provision of UNCLOS. The thesis analyses the American debate about joining the Convention and analyses the consequences of American absence as a party to the treaty. The FON Program and FONOPs in the South China Sea are thoroughly analysed by the thesis. The South China Sea is a troubled region suffering from excessive maritime claims of local states. These claims are closely connected to the militarization of the region. The People's Republic of China is an important force as a rising power striving for the position of a regional hegemon. The thesis describes, how FONOPs are conducted and it observes, how they are received by the target states. The thesis is set in the South China Sea region between October 2015 and May...

The marine environment’s evolving discourse on oil pollution in the High Seas since the 1958 Convention on the High Seas and the Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas is of great significance. This research aims to investigate the changes and developments in this discourse, shedding light on the importance of addressing oil pollution and its impact on the marine environment. By examining the changes in discourse, the study aims to highlight the difficulty of the problem and the potential implications of its resolution. The approach involves analyzing the 1958 Conventions, GESAMP reports, and the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The findings indicate that the 1982 treaty successfully addressed the semantic ambiguity of the terms ships and oil found in the 1958 Conventions. The inclusion of the term vessels in the treaty provided a more comprehensive definition, ensuring coverage of all types of ships. Furthermore, the discourse expanded beyond a singular focus on oil, encompassing a broader range of pollutants and environmental concerns. These results signify progress towards a more holistic approach to combat oil pollution in the high seas. The implications of these findings underscore the importance of ongoing efforts to protect and preserve the marine environment.

This thesis examines the process applied by international tribunals for delimiting Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and continental shelf boundaries under international law. Maritime delimitation is governed by articles 74 and 83 of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which are customary international law. However, owing to the vagueness of such legal provisions, international tribunals have been developing a standard process for delimiting maritime boundaries. The delimitation process has evolved significantly since the 1969 judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in North Sea Continental Shelf. The ICJ re-stated this process in its 2009 Black Sea judgment as being constituted of three stages: first, an equidistance line is provisionally drawn; second, this line is adjusted should relevant circumstances so require; third, the overall equitableness of the boundary is evaluated by assessing the proportionality between the length of the relevant coast and the marine areas appertaining to each state. This thesis analyses each stage of the delimitation process as re-stated in Black Sea. By way of introduction, chapter 1 outlines the relevant legal provisions and the historical evolution of the delimitation process through the jurisprudence of international tribunals. Chapter 2 discusses both the notions of the relevant coast and of the relevant area, and the practical methods for their identification. Since Black Sea, international tribunals have tended to identify the relevant coast and the relevant area prior to establishing a provisional equidistance line. Chapter 3 discusses the issues concerning the drawing of the provisional equidistance line. Chapter 4 examines relevant circumstances and the methods for adjusting an equidistance line. Chapter 5 discusses proportionality. Using doctrinal legal research methodologies, this thesis aims to assess the degree of consistency in the international tribunals’ application of the three-stage delimitation process. It argues that, while great leaps forward have been made since 1969, there is still a number of unresolved issues, in relation to which this thesis endeavours to provide some workable solutions.