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Previous studies have established that ozone-oxygen mixtures can be used to inactivate a variety of microorganisms including bacteria, fungi and viruses. Ozone is a potent reactive oxygen species (ROS) that rapidly decays into a variety of additional short half-life ROS which have been shown to cause oxidative damage to biological molecules. I hypothesize that controlled ozone exposure and the subsequent generation of additional ROS would reduce viral infectivity by lipid and/or protein peroxidation. A proprietary ozone-oxygen delivery system was used to inactivate a series of enveloped [herpes simplex virus type-1 strain McIntyre (HSV-1), vaccinia strain Elstree (VAC), vesicular stomatitis virus strain Indiana (VSV), and influenza A strain (H1N1) A/WS/33] and non-enveloped [human adenovirus type2 (Ad2)] viruses. Plaque reduction and suspension-infection viral antigen assays were used to determine inactivation kinetics. After ozonation, HSV-1 and VSV lost up to 6 log10 infectious particles in 15 min, while VAC and influenza A lost up to 5 log10 in 40 min and 30 min, respectively. In comparison, the non-enveloped Ad2 lost up to 5 log10 in 60 min. Increasing amounts of serum supplementation in the ozone treated virus suspensions slowed the rate of inactivation in both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses, suggesting the protective effect of serum against ozone. Lipid peroxidation was determined through a chromogenic assay for malondialdehyde (MDA), a byproduct of peroxidation events. MDA concentrations were inversely correlated with virus infectivity, as MDA concentrations elevated with virus exposure time to ozone. Transmission electron microscopy images of Ad2, HSV-1, VAC and VSV confirmed the drastic morphological changes that resulted from ozone treatment. The ROS-mediated attack compromised the integrity of the lipid envelopes and protein shells of the viruses. These data suggest that a wide range of viruses can be inactivated through use of an innovative ozone delivery system, thus validating my hypothesis.

A major obstacle in the implementation of adoptive cell therapy (ACT) for solid tumors is CD8+ T cell quantity and functional quality. In order to address this issue, the ACT field has directed considerable effort toward the generation of less-differentiated memory T cells (Tm), which demonstrate superior effector function and engraftment over effector T cells. An obstacle in using Tm for ACT is their requirement for in vivo activation before full effector function can be acquired. We sought to determine if a rhabdovirus expressing a defined tumor antigen (i.e. a rhabdoviral oncolytic vaccine) could activate adoptively-transferred Tm in vivo and eliminate established tumors. We used ex vivo cultured DUC18 TCR-transgenic Tm combined with a rhabdoviral oncolytic vaccine to target established CMS5 fibrosarcomas in both balb/c and NRG mice, and we compared the efficacy of the combination treatment versus monotherapies. Our data demonstrate that the rhabdoviral oncolytic vaccine was capable of expanding adoptively-transferred Tm in order to eliminate established tumors. Furthermore, synergy between ACT and oncolytic vaccination was required for optimal therapeutic outcome. Interestingly, we observed a population of endogenous, tumor-primed lymphocytes which appeared to be required for complete tumor elimination and subsequent memory formation. This was in contrast to the current consensus in the ACT field which is that endogenous lymphocytes are detrimental to therapeutic outcome, thus necessitating lymphodepletion prior to the commencement of therapy. Our data suggest that endogenous lymphocytes may be a beneficial cell population which is overlooked by current approaches to ACT. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Current approaches to the T cell therapy of cancer are hindered by poor cell quality. It is simple to grow higher quality T cells, but it is difficult to grow very large numbers of them. Furthermore, higher quality T cells need a signal in order to “switch on” before they can start killing cancer cells. Here, we use a cancer-targeting virus as a signal for these cells to activate, grow to very large numbers in the patient, and destroy their tumor. Our vaccine also switches on other immune cells in the patient, which help guarantee the destruction of the tumor. The significance of this work is that it will improve T cell therapy for cancer by opening the possibility of using higher-quality T cells which are much better at killing cancer than the currently used type of T cells.

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Due to the inevitable reality that most patients diagnosed with cancer will eventually relapse, modern oncology research has been forced to tackle this outcome primitively using combination therapies. Adoptive T-cell transfer with Oncolytic Virus Vaccination represents a new class of combination therapies that can facilitate the crosstalk of multiple aspects of the immune system such that they work in concert to prevent this outcome for many types of cancer. Despite this, immunosuppressive systems like those characterized in the B16F10-gp33 melanoma model pose a new problem for this approach. Typically, this model has total regression but is subsequently followed by relapse. Previous work from the Wan lab has suggested that this may be an outcome of total target gene deletion. Here we present two approaches to tackle this through the targeting of DNA repair pathways of the host cell. Our data can show that both VSV and Vaccinia infection/ propagation does lead to the generation of DNA damage but in the case of VSV this leads to incomplete cell lysis, and ultimately target gene loss via double-stranded DNA repair mechanisms. We were able to tackle the phenomenon following VSV administration by adding DNA repair inhibitors to the mix and showed that the proportion of cells that escaped after the loss of the target antigen was decreased by half when compared to the standard procedures. Additionally, this work also gave a preliminary understanding of how Vaccinia may achieve a similar outcome to this via its unique cytoplasmic replication mechanisms. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

<p>We showed previously that histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition with MS-275 in the context of boosting oncolytic immunotherapy can drive heightened antitumor responses, leading to increased survival in mouse intracranial melanoma models. However, it is currently unclear how the co-administration of MS-275 directly impacts tumor growth. Here, we investigated the role of MS-275 in preventing the outgrowth of antigen-deficient tumor variants as a result of suboptimal treatment protocols. By adoptively transferring tumor antigen-specific memory T cells (Tm) that were expanded <em>in vivo</em> with recombinant Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV-gp33), we observed complete regression of 5-day old, intradermal B16-gp33 tumors (B16-F10 overexpressing the LCMV GP33-41 epitope); however, the tumors relapsed within a month of treatment. Relapsing tumor explants were able to grow in mice that were prophylactically immunized with recombinant Adenovirus (Ad-gp33), indicating that the tumor could no longer be recognized. Strikingly however, there was zero tumor recurrence if MS-275 was co-administered with Tm and VSV-gp33, suggesting that MS-275 may prevent the emergence and/or escape of antigen loss variants. Such a benefit is lost if the administration of the drug is delayed as little as five days post VSV treatment, suggesting that its synergistic effects coincide with early immune responses and oncolytic activity. Furthermore, transplantation studies of relapsing tumor explants showed that combination treatment was unable to provide tumor protection, confirming that the mechanisms by which MS-275 prevents tumor recurrence are unlikely through direct up-regulation of antigen presentation in low- or non-antigen-expressing variants <em>in vivo</em>. Indeed, CD4 depletion in the absence of MS-275 resulted in sustained tumor regression, implying that immunoregulatory cells such as CD4+ Treg play a prominent role in sustaining tumor regression. Moreover, MS-275 modulates the phenotypic status of tumor-infiltrating MDSCs toward the differentiation of inflammatory macrophages. Taken together, the data suggests that combination therapy with HDACi with oncolytic immunotherapy mediates a synergized immune attack against the tumor through subversion of immunomodulatory mechanisms.</p> / Master of Science in Medical Sciences (MSMS)

Le cancer est une maladie qui touche des millions de personnes et ne discrimine pas. La forme de cancer la plus répandue chez les femmes au Canada est le cancer du sein et la deuxième cause de décès par le cancer chez cette population. Les traitements dépendent de plusieurs facteurs dont le stade du cancer, la ménopause, le statut des récepteurs hormonaux et du récepteur HER2 du cancer, etc. Les traitements qui existent sont la chirurgie suivie par la radio- et/ou chimiothérapie et l’hormonothérapie. Malgré les nombreuses études et les avancées dans les traitements pour différents cancers, plusieurs patients ont des cancers du sein qui sont réfractaires aux traitements disponibles. Une alternative naissante est l’utilisation de virus oncolytiques, c’est-à-dire des virus qui ciblent spécifiquement les cellules cancéreuses et laissent intact les cellules saines. Malheureusement, certains cancers demeurent réfractaires aux traitements avec virus oncolytiques. Ceci nous amène donc à regarder plus en détail des facteurs de l’environnement tumoral qui pourraient prédire la susceptibilité virale et engendrer des résultats positifs. C’est dans cette perspective que nous avons découvert que l'estrogène, précisément l’estradiol, rend les cellules cancéreuses qui en expriment le récepteur plus sensible au virus oncolytique VSV (virus de la stomatite vésiculaire). Cependant, nous ignorons toujours si d’autres hormones peuvent également moduler l’action de VOs. Nous émettons donc l’hypothèse que, comme l’estrogène, d’autres hormones vont affecter l’efficacité des VOs et qu’il serait possible de manipuler ces interactions pour améliorer la réponse au traitement. Notre étude nous permettra de concevoir des stratégies thérapeutiques améliorées pour les patients atteints du cancer du sein. L’importance de cette étude est que jusqu’à présent l’impact des hormones sur l’efficacité des virus oncolytiques reste un sujet inexploré. Nous allons déterminer l’effet de différents niveaux d’hormones sur la réplication et l’effet oncolytique de VSV. Ceci nous donnera ainsi la possibilité et les connaissances d’améliorer la sélection des patients pour le traitement et la conception d’une nouvelle génération de virus oncolytiques perfectionnés. / Cancer is a disease that affects millions of people across the world. The most common cancer in Canadian women is breast cancer and it also represents the second cause of death by cancer in this same group. The treatment depends on multiple factors including the stage of the cancer, menopause status, hormone receptor status, HER2 receptor status, etc. The available treatments for breast cancer are surgery followed by either radiation or chemotherapy as well as endocrine therapy. Despite numerous studies and advances in the treatment of different cancers, many patients’ cancer still remains refractory to these treatments. An exciting new alternative treatment is the use of oncolytic viruses. An oncolytic virus is a virus that can specifically target cancer cells all while leaving healthy normal cells intact. However, many cancers remain refractory to treatment with oncolytic viruses. There was thus a need to investigate different factors or the tumor microenvironment that may predict viral susceptibility and obtain positive outcomes. In this vein, it was found that estrogen (specifically estradiol), a hormone found in the body, can render cancer cells that express its receptor more sensitive to oncolytic virus infection by VSV (vesicular stomatitis virus). In spite of that, we are unaware if there are other hormones capable of modulating the actions of oncolytic viruses. Our hypothesis is that, like estrogen, other hormones will affect the efficacy of oncolytic viruses and that it will be possible to manipulate these interactions with the goal to improve treatment response. Our research will allow the conception of enhanced therapeutic strategies for patients with breast cancer. The importance of this study is that as of now the interplay between hormones and oncolytic viruses remains unexplored. We will determine the effects of hormone levels on viral replication and oncolytic ability of VSV. This knowledge will allow for a greater selection of patients for which oncolytic virus treatment will have a positive outcome. Additionally, it will allow for the development of a new generation of perfected oncolytic virus platforms.

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