It is apparent from the historical perspective regarding the theories of cognitive development and the cognitive functioning of individuals with visual impairments, that sight plays a major role in the development of certain cognitive processes. However, the affects of visual impairment on cognitive development remain to be at issue. Since sight seems to be highly integral in cognitive development beginning in the early stages of physical development, about the sixth month of life, and then begins to diminish in importance as verbal communication develops around eighteen months, then it should stand to reason that significant visual impairment or blindness occurring prior to this time would adversely impact an individual's cognitive development. Conversely, the occurrence of visual impairment or blindness after this critical period of development would have less of an impact. Cognitive theorists have proposed that visually impaired or blind persons may have developed different cognitive pathways to acquire, process, and accommodate sensory information. As a result, visually impaired or blind (VI/B) persons may "think differently" than sighted individuals. The present study was designed to address these issues as they relate to cognitive and neuropsychological development at various stages of growth and to examine possible differences in neuropsychological functioning dependent on the level of visual functioning a person retains; e.g. both the issues of age at onset and degree of impairment. It was also designed to study the possible interaction effects of degree of impairment with the age of onset. Findings indicated that the only differences in cognitive functioning appear to be related to age of onset and not the level of visual impairment. The findings further suggested that congenitally blind individuals have indeed developed alternate methods of cognitively processing nonverbal, abstract, or complex information, especially information involving a high degree of spatial orientation. Implications of this study may influence the educational methods used to teach congenitally blind individuals in order to reinforce these alternate pathways and facilitate more effective means of negotiating in a sighted environment.

En años recientes, el uso de tabletas y teléfonos o dispositivos inteligentes ha incrementado continuamente gracias a la facilidad y disponibilidad de acceso a la información, entretenimiento y comunicación que ofrecen con su creciente variedad de aplicativos y especialmente su acceso a internet. A diferencia de computadoras o notebooks, estos dispositivos tienen tecnologías para mejorar la usabilidad para personas con dificultades visuales que también pueden ser utilizadas para crear nuevos aplicativos de asistencia sin la necesidad de aparatos externos. Esto genera oportunidades para un desarrollo inclusivo que mantiene la misma portabilidad. Sin embargo, estos dispositivos principalmente usan una pantalla táctil y aún entre sus tecnologías incorporadas, no tienen medios para ingresar datos que sean permitan que personas con ceguera ingresen información por otros medios que no sean su voz o un complejo teclado QWERTY. En este artículo, proponemos el uso de una solución adaptativa que permite al usuario usar la misma pantalla táctil como una alternativa para ingresar datos al simular un teclado Braille y demostramos su uso, además de tecnologías de lector de texto, con una aplicación que permite que una persona ciega chatee mediante mensajes instantáneos.

Thesis advisor: David Scanlon / Classroom accommodations are a primary means of providing an appropriate education for students with disabilities. While there is value in student involvement in the accommodations process, the process continues to be teacher-driven, so we need to teach students to be strategic in selecting and utilizing their own accommodations. This problem holds true across disabilities, and students with visual impairments are no exception. The Student Self-Accommodation Strategy (SSA) was developed to support students with high-incidence disabilities in strategically selecting and utilizing their own accommodations. This study investigated SSA learning and performance for students with visual impairments and how learning the SSA impacted their classroom accommodation practices. The learning experiences of four students with visual impairments were compared using comparative case studies (Cresswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, & Hanson, 2003) within a sequential explanatory design (Hanson, Creswell, Plano Clark, Petska, & Creswell, 2008). Mixed methods data were collected before, during, and after strategy instruction pertaining to accommodations knowledge and practices, strategy learning and performance, metacognition and self-regulated learning, and student perceptions of the SSA. Cross-case analysis revealed key findings regarding strategy instruction, strategy learning and performance, and metacognition and self-regulated learning. These key findings have implications for educating students with visual impairments and future research on the SSA. Ultimately, this study indicates that the SSA is a valuable tool for strategically selecting and utilizing accommodations; however, characteristics of individual students and their learning environments have a considerable impact on the development of strategic thinking. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2019. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Teacher Education, Special Education, Curriculum and Instruction.

Objetivos: Avaliar a freqüência de miopia como causa de deficiência visual em sujeitos com idade entre 10 a 15 anos residentes na cidade de Gurupi assim como a sua relação com a distribuição com idade e sexo. Métodos: Estudo transversal populacional. Foram sorteados e avaliados 50 conglomerados dos 59 anteriormente utilizados pelo IBGE para a realização do Censo 2000 compreendendo toda a cidade de Gurupi. Uma equipe treinada visitou as casas seguindo uma ordem de quarteirões definidos previamente pelo IBGE. Foram usados como critérios de inclusão idade de 10 a 15 anos e residir no local por, pelo menos, seis meses. As residências em que não houve resposta foram revisitadas em uma segunda oportunidade. Após explicação do trabalho e o consentimento por escrito de um responsável, com a ajuda deste, foi preenchida uma ficha com os dados do sujeito. Foi avaliada a acuidade visual de cada olho sem correção, separadamente com cinco optotipos impressos de Snellen em linha correspondentes a visão 20/32 da tabela logMAR, a uma distância de 4 metros. Os sujeitos que apresentaram dificuldade de visualizar mais de um optotipo com um ou ambos os olhos foram encaminhados para avaliação em consultório por um oftalmologista. Foi realizado teste de motilidade ocular e revistada a acuidade visual com tabela de logMar retro iluminada a 4 metros. Após cicloplegia, foi feita a auto-refração, seguido da refração subjetiva utilizando tabela logMar , exame externo, biomicroscopia e fundoscopia. Foi prescrita a correção para os sujeitos que apresentaram melhora da acuidade visual após a refração. A deficiência foi classificada em refrativa, catarata, tracoma, ambliopia, alterações retinianas, estrabismo e outros. Resultados: Foram examinados 1590 sujeitos com idade variando entre 10 a 15 anos, sendo 814 (51%) do sexo masculino e 776 (49%) do sexo feminino. Dos 167 que apresentaram limitações para identificar os optotipos de Snellen, 127 (76%) compareceram para a avaliação em consultório, sendo que 61 (59%) não necessitaram de correção. Das correções, 15 (22%) foram corrigidos com lentes com equivalente esférico positivo. As prescrições com equivalente esférico negativo somaram 51 (77%) com variação entre -0,5 até -7,00 dioptrias esféricas, correspondendo a uma freqüência de miopia de 3,2%. Destes, 23 (45%) eram do sexo masculino e 28 (55%) do sexo feminino. Dos sujeitos que necessitaram de óculos, nove (10%) ainda não faziam uso prévio de correção. Os erros refrativos foram a principal causa de deficiência de visão, responsáveis por 53 (80%) dos casos, sendo 45 (90%) míopes e oito (10%) hipermetropes. Em seguida, ambliopia com 8 (12%) sujeitos, 4 (6%) com alterações retinianas e 1 (1%) com catarata congênita. As variáveis sexo, idade, região onde residia, uso prévio de óculos foram associadas com a miopia por regressão multivariada sem nenhuma relação significativa. Conclusão: Os erros refrativos são a principal causa de baixa de visão na faixa de idade examinada, com destaque para a miopia, que apresentou uma freqüência de 3,2%. Nenhum dos fatores estudados apresentou relação estatística com a presença de miopia / Objective: To evaluate the frequency of visual impairment caused by myopia in subjects from 10 to 15 years old in the city of Gurupi and its relation with some factors studied in this age group. Methods: Population-based, transversal study. 50 from 59 clusters from Gurupi - TO, previously used by IBGE (2000), were randomized. All subjects from 10 to 15 years old, living in the same place for at least 6 months were included. Vision was tested in each eye, without correction, with five Snelle\'s optotypes, corresponding to 20/32 in logMar chart, at four meters distance. When the subjects could not see one or more optotypes with one or both eyes, they were referred to an ophthalmological examination. In the physician office, eye motility was tested and visual acuity was retested the with the logMar chart. After cicloplegia, auto refraction was performed, followed by the subjective refraction (using a retroilluminated logMar chart), inspection, biomicroscopy and fundoscopy. Lenses were prescribed after refraction to patients who showed visual acuity improvement. The causes of visual impairment were classified in refractive, cataract, trachoma, ambliopia, retinopathy, strabismus and others. Results: 1,590 subjects were examined, in which 814 (51%) were male and 776 (49%) were female. Among the 167 subjects screened, 127 (76%) were examined at the physician office and 76 (59%) did not receive lens prescription. 15 patients (22%) of those displayed positive spherical equivalent and 51 (77%) presented with negative spherical equivalent (varying from -0,5 to -7,00 D), totalizing a frequency of 3.2%. 23 (45%) myopic patients were male and 28 (55%) female. Refractive errors were the main cause of visual impairment [53 (80%); myopia in 45 and hypermetropia in 8), followed by ambliopia (8, 12%), retinopathies (4, 6%) and congenital cataract (1, 1%). Multivariate analysis of the association of the variables gender, age, region, previous ophthalmic examination and previous glasses with myopia did not present significant relation. Conclusion: Refractive errors were the major cause of visual impairment in this age group (80%), mainly represented by myopia, with a general frequency of 3.2%. No co-variable studied displayed statistical relation with the presence of myopia

The Web has been a blessing for visually impaired users as with the help of assistive technologies such as screen readers, they can access previously inaccessible information independently. However, for screen reader users, web-based information seeking can still be challenging as web pages are mainly designed for visual interaction. This affects visually impaired users’ perception of theWeb as an information space as well as their experience of search interfaces. The aim of this thesis is therefore to consider visually impaired users’ information seeking behaviour, abilities and interactions via screen readers in the design of a search interface to support complex information seeking. We first conduct a review of how visually impaired users navigate the Web using screen readers. We highlight the strategies employed, the challenges encountered and the solutions to enhance web navigation through screen readers. We then investigate the information seeking behaviour of visually impaired users on the Web through an observational study and we compare this behaviour to that of sighted users to examine the impact of screen reader interaction on the information seeking process. To engage visually impaired users in the design process, we propose and evaluate a novel participatory approach based on a narrative scenario and a dialogue-led interaction to verify user requirements and to brainstorm design ideas. The development of the search interface is informed by the requirements gathered from the observational study and is supported through the inclusion of visually impaired users in the design process. We implement and evaluate the proposed search interface with novel features to support visually impaired users for complex information seeking. This thesis shows that considerations for information seeking behaviour and users’ abilities and mode of interaction contribute significantly to the design of search user interfaces to ensure that interface components are accessible as well as usable.

Objetivos: Avaliar a freqüência de miopia como causa de deficiência visual em sujeitos com idade entre 10 a 15 anos residentes na cidade de Gurupi assim como a sua relação com a distribuição com idade e sexo. Métodos: Estudo transversal populacional. Foram sorteados e avaliados 50 conglomerados dos 59 anteriormente utilizados pelo IBGE para a realização do Censo 2000 compreendendo toda a cidade de Gurupi. Uma equipe treinada visitou as casas seguindo uma ordem de quarteirões definidos previamente pelo IBGE. Foram usados como critérios de inclusão idade de 10 a 15 anos e residir no local por, pelo menos, seis meses. As residências em que não houve resposta foram revisitadas em uma segunda oportunidade. Após explicação do trabalho e o consentimento por escrito de um responsável, com a ajuda deste, foi preenchida uma ficha com os dados do sujeito. Foi avaliada a acuidade visual de cada olho sem correção, separadamente com cinco optotipos impressos de Snellen em linha correspondentes a visão 20/32 da tabela logMAR, a uma distância de 4 metros. Os sujeitos que apresentaram dificuldade de visualizar mais de um optotipo com um ou ambos os olhos foram encaminhados para avaliação em consultório por um oftalmologista. Foi realizado teste de motilidade ocular e revistada a acuidade visual com tabela de logMar retro iluminada a 4 metros. Após cicloplegia, foi feita a auto-refração, seguido da refração subjetiva utilizando tabela logMar , exame externo, biomicroscopia e fundoscopia. Foi prescrita a correção para os sujeitos que apresentaram melhora da acuidade visual após a refração. A deficiência foi classificada em refrativa, catarata, tracoma, ambliopia, alterações retinianas, estrabismo e outros. Resultados: Foram examinados 1590 sujeitos com idade variando entre 10 a 15 anos, sendo 814 (51%) do sexo masculino e 776 (49%) do sexo feminino. Dos 167 que apresentaram limitações para identificar os optotipos de Snellen, 127 (76%) compareceram para a avaliação em consultório, sendo que 61 (59%) não necessitaram de correção. Das correções, 15 (22%) foram corrigidos com lentes com equivalente esférico positivo. As prescrições com equivalente esférico negativo somaram 51 (77%) com variação entre -0,5 até -7,00 dioptrias esféricas, correspondendo a uma freqüência de miopia de 3,2%. Destes, 23 (45%) eram do sexo masculino e 28 (55%) do sexo feminino. Dos sujeitos que necessitaram de óculos, nove (10%) ainda não faziam uso prévio de correção. Os erros refrativos foram a principal causa de deficiência de visão, responsáveis por 53 (80%) dos casos, sendo 45 (90%) míopes e oito (10%) hipermetropes. Em seguida, ambliopia com 8 (12%) sujeitos, 4 (6%) com alterações retinianas e 1 (1%) com catarata congênita. As variáveis sexo, idade, região onde residia, uso prévio de óculos foram associadas com a miopia por regressão multivariada sem nenhuma relação significativa. Conclusão: Os erros refrativos são a principal causa de baixa de visão na faixa de idade examinada, com destaque para a miopia, que apresentou uma freqüência de 3,2%. Nenhum dos fatores estudados apresentou relação estatística com a presença de miopia / Objective: To evaluate the frequency of visual impairment caused by myopia in subjects from 10 to 15 years old in the city of Gurupi and its relation with some factors studied in this age group. Methods: Population-based, transversal study. 50 from 59 clusters from Gurupi - TO, previously used by IBGE (2000), were randomized. All subjects from 10 to 15 years old, living in the same place for at least 6 months were included. Vision was tested in each eye, without correction, with five Snelle\'s optotypes, corresponding to 20/32 in logMar chart, at four meters distance. When the subjects could not see one or more optotypes with one or both eyes, they were referred to an ophthalmological examination. In the physician office, eye motility was tested and visual acuity was retested the with the logMar chart. After cicloplegia, auto refraction was performed, followed by the subjective refraction (using a retroilluminated logMar chart), inspection, biomicroscopy and fundoscopy. Lenses were prescribed after refraction to patients who showed visual acuity improvement. The causes of visual impairment were classified in refractive, cataract, trachoma, ambliopia, retinopathy, strabismus and others. Results: 1,590 subjects were examined, in which 814 (51%) were male and 776 (49%) were female. Among the 167 subjects screened, 127 (76%) were examined at the physician office and 76 (59%) did not receive lens prescription. 15 patients (22%) of those displayed positive spherical equivalent and 51 (77%) presented with negative spherical equivalent (varying from -0,5 to -7,00 D), totalizing a frequency of 3.2%. 23 (45%) myopic patients were male and 28 (55%) female. Refractive errors were the main cause of visual impairment [53 (80%); myopia in 45 and hypermetropia in 8), followed by ambliopia (8, 12%), retinopathies (4, 6%) and congenital cataract (1, 1%). Multivariate analysis of the association of the variables gender, age, region, previous ophthalmic examination and previous glasses with myopia did not present significant relation. Conclusion: Refractive errors were the major cause of visual impairment in this age group (80%), mainly represented by myopia, with a general frequency of 3.2%. No co-variable studied displayed statistical relation with the presence of myopia

In 1998, the United States Congress amended Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act to require federal agencies to make electronic and information technology accessible. The first accessibility guidelines from the World Wide Web Consortium’s Web Accessibility Initiative, Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0, were published in 1999. This study tests the usable accessibility of cultural institution web sites. Four cultural institution web sites were selected, two that were WCAG 1.0 compliant and that were not, were selected for evaluation. A combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis was conducted. Significant differences were found in the perceived usability of the guideline-compliant web sites; significance was found for one of three tasks. Overall, the guideline-compliant sites received higher usability ratings, but the task completion rates did not support a claim of greater usability.

This qualitative case study focuses on the efforts of the education staff at the Meadows Museum of Art as they planned and implemented INsights and OUTlooks – an inclusive educational program, meaning that it was designed for sighted and non-sighted visitors. Although this is an inclusive program, the study concentrates mostly on how it was designed to make art accessible to visitors with visual impairments. The researcher interviewed the staff in charge of leading the program, observed two program sessions, and attended staff meetings related to INsights and OUTlooks to gain a better understanding of how it functions. Current literature (Andrus, 1999; McGinnis, 2007) within the field of art education suggests that staff at art museums should adopt inclusive practices as they design programs and exhibitions. This study explores the process of creating such a program, the tools and approaches utilized to make art accessible to visitors with visual impairments, and the benefits of being inclusive. Research studies such as this one add to the existing but limited literature regarding inclusive programming in art museums. / text

The data gathered from disability service professionals in six different states through an on-line survey and follow up interviews was used to determine if there was a correlation between specific professional practices and the magnitude of the disparity in four-year college graduation and employment rates between individuals with visual impairments and the general population.. The frequency of use of an individual professional practice that addressed technology that could be aligned with the social model disability was associated with reduced disparities in rates of employment and post-secondary graduation, as was an aggregate variable that represented the average frequency of use of professional practices that addressed concerns related to the attitudes of others; social connections; and access to the environment, print, and technology that could be aligned with the social model of disability. In addition, the professional practice that addressed environmental access concerns that could be aligned with the political model of disability was associated with reduced disparities post-secondary graduation rates and the professional practice that addressed access to print concerns that could be aligned with the social model of disability was associated with reduced disparities in rates of employment. Overall, participants cited personal professional experience as the main source of influence for initiating practices regardless of the model of disability with which each practice could be aligned. At the same time, participant responses suggested that those practices that could be aligned with the medical model were more likely to be known to the participant and originate from personal professional experiences than practices that aligned with the social model and the political model. The results from this study suggested that of the external influences, laws and regulations may have been the most influential in initiating practices that could be aligned with the social model of disability and subsequently associated with positive educational and employment outcomes. The data generated through the interviews reinforced the survey findings but also revealed pragmatic perspectives on disability that informed practice, including the use of multiple models of disability at the same time in response to individual situations.

This exploratory study investigated the techniques used by teachers of the visually impaired when administering math questions with graphics to students with blindness or low vision. The researcher observed and videotaped 10 pairs of students with visual impairments and their teachers while the students were taking a test that consisted of 12 graphic math items and found a wide variance existed between teachers in the administering of mathematical test items with graphics to their students. The most prevalent teacher behaviors observed were teacher initiation and graph detail description. For the majority of the teacher initiated responses, teachers gave information on a specific detail of the math graphic. Students predominantly asked for clarification regarding the math graphic itself or clarification of the math problem itself. Teachers used a variety of factors in determining if and when students required assistance during testing for large print or tactile graphics. No statistical significance was found between braille and large print groups with regard to teacher variation, student variation, and scores on test items, No relationship was found between correct answers on the test and teacher variation scores but a strong, positive correlation existed for total test time and teacher variation scores. In addition, there was no statistical significance, between the six math graph types used in this study. Hand movements of braille students were also observed, 90% of students using either both hands or mostly both hands when exploring the tactile graphic math problem. A horizontal movement was the primary direction students used when examining the tactile graphic. Recommendations were made regarding future research with large print and tactile graphics