There are a number of testability considerations for VLSI design, but test coverage, test time, accuracy of test patterns and correctness of design information for DFD (Design for debug) are the most important ones in design with embedded memories. The goal of DFT (Design-for-Test) is to achieve zero defects. When it comes to the memory subsystem in SOCs (system on chips), many flavors of memory BIST (built-in self test) are able to get high test coverage in a memory, but often, no proper attention is given to the memory interface logic (shadow logic). Functional testing and BIST are the most prevalent tests for this logic, but functional testing is impractical for complicated SOC designs. As a result, industry has widely used at-speed scan testing to detect delay induced defects. Compared with functional testing, scan-based testing for delay faults reduces overall pattern generation complexity and cost by enhancing both controllability and observability of flip-flops. However, without proper modeling of memory, Xs are generated from memories. Also, when the design has chip compression logic, the number of ATPG patterns is increased significantly due to Xs from memories. In this dissertation, a register based testing method and X prevention logic are presented to tackle these problems. An important design stage for scan based testing with memory subsystems is the step to create a gate level model and verify with this model. The flow needs to provide a robust ATPG netlist model. Most industry standard CAD tools used to analyze fault coverage and generate test vectors require gate level models. However, custom embedded memories are typically designed using a transistor-level flow, there is a need for an abstraction step to generate the gate models, which must be equivalent to the actual design (transistor level). The contribution of the research is a framework to verify that the gate level representation of custom designs is equivalent to the transistor-level design. Compared to basic stuck-at fault testing, the number of patterns for at-speed testing is much larger than for basic stuck-at fault testing. So reducing test and data volume are important. In this desertion, a new scan reordering method is introduced to reduce test data with an optimal routing solution. With in depth understanding of embedded memories and flows developed during the study of custom memory DFT, a custom embedded memory Bit Mapping method using a symbolic simulator is presented in the last chapter to achieve high yield for memories. / text

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Eindhoven University of Technology. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 134-137) and index.

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Σκοπός της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη και ο σχεδιασμός VLSI επεξεργαστών για τη διόρθωση λαθών. Η κατηγορία των VLSI επεξεργαστών στην οποία εστιάζει η έρευνά μου είναι ο αποκωδικοποιητής Viterbi. Αρχικά, παρουσιάζεται η δομή του ψηφιακού τηλεπικοινωνιακού συστήματος και κάποιες βασικές έννοιες των κωδικών διόρθωσης λαθών. Έπειτα, αναλύονται οι Συνελικτικοί κωδικοποιητές, ανάμεσα στους οποίους περιλαμβάνεται ο Συνελικτικός κωδικοποιητής που χρησιμοποιείται στην εργασία μου και ο οποίος χρησιμοποιείται ευρέως στο πρότυπο Wifi 802.11a. Ακολούθως, γίνεται αναφορά στο κανάλι AWGN και στη διαμόρφωση BPSK. Ακόμα, παρουσιάζονται οι βασικές έννοιες του αλγόριθμου Viterbi, η λειτουργία του, η δομή του καθώς και οι εφαρμογές του. Στη συνέχεια, μελετώνται διάφορες αρχιτεκτονικές του αποκωδικοποιητή Viterbi σε VLSI. Με βάση τον τρόπο υλοποίησης αριθμητικών πράξεων, οι αρχιτεκτονικές που αναπτύσσονται είναι ο Radix-2 και ο Radix-4 Viterbi, ενώ με βάση τον τρόπο αποκωδικοποίησης αναπτύσσονται οι αρχιτεκτονικές του Viterbi για συνεχή αποκωδικοποίηση-εφαρμογές streaming και του Viterbi για αποκωδικοποίηση πακέτων των 20 bits. Επίσης, μελετάται η απόδοση των αρχιτεκτονικών αυτών με κριτήριο τη συχνότητα λαθών που πραγματοποιούνται (Bit Error Rate – BER) και αναλύεται η υλοποίηση των αρχιτεκτονικών αυτών στο αναπτυξιακό σύστημα Xilinx. Τέλος, προκύπτουν τα κατάλληλα συμπεράσματα. / The purpose of this diploma thesis is to study and implement VLSI processors for correcting errors. The category of VLSI processor which will focus in this work is the Viterbi decoder. Initially, the structure of the digital telecommunications system is presented along with some basic concepts of error correcting codes. Then we explain the theory behind convolutional encoders and we describe the convolutional encoder that is used in my work and is consistent in the Wifi 802.11a standard. Next we analyze briefly the AWGN channel and the BPSJ modulation. Also the basic concepts of the Viterbi algorithm, how it works, its structure and the different applications are given. For the practical part which is the main part of this project, is to study the different architectures of the Viterbi decoder in VLSI approach. The main architectures that were developed for the implementation arithmetic operations is Radix-2 and Radix-4 Viterbi, but in terms of decoding two more architectures were developed, Viterbi continuous decoding-streaming applications and Viterbi decoding for packets of 20 bits. Then, the performance of these architectures in terms of frequency of errors made (BER) was investigated and also the implementation of these architectures in the development system Xilinx was analyzed. At the end we give our conclusion regarding the results of the different simulations that we’ve done.

Στην εργασία αυτή μελετώνται τεχνικές διόρθωσης λαθών BCH κωδικοποίησης και η υλοποίηση τους με αρχιτεκτονικές VLSI. Στην αρχή γίνεται μία εισαγωγή στα Συστήματα Ψηφιακής Επικοινωνίας. Αυτή ακολουθείται από μία περιγραφή των μαθηματικών θεωρημάτων και ορισμών που χρησιμοποιούνται για την Διόρθωση Λαθών. Επίσης, παρουσιάζονται οι βασικές Τεχνικές Κωδικοποίησης, δίνοντας ιδιαίτερη έμφαση στην BCH Κωδικοποίηση. Στην συνέχεια παρουσιάζεται η πλατφόρμα εξομοίωσης στο MatLab, και οι συναρτήσεις που την υλοποιούν, για την μέτρηση BER διαφόρων BCH Κωδικών. Κάνοντας χρήση αυτής της πλατφόρμας γίνεται η σύγκριση μεταξύ non-binary και binary BCH Κωδίκων ίδιου code rate καθώς και non-binary BCH Κωδίκων διαφορετικών μηκών και code rate. Στο τελευταίο μέρος της εργασίας, προτείνεται μία γενική αρχιτεκτονική ενός non-binary BCH αποκωδικοποιητή. Βάσει αυτής της προτεινόμενης αρχιτεκτονικής περιγράφεται λεπτομερώς η υλοποίηση ενός αποκωδικοποιητή οκταδικού BCH Κώδικα μήκους 63 συμβόλων και διάστασης 48 συμβόλων με απόσταση σχεδίασης 4 συμβόλων. Τέλος, μετά την παρουσίαση των αποτελεσμάτων της υλοποίησης του συγκεκριμένου αποκωδικοποιητή σε FPGA πλατφόρμα ανάπτυξης, συνοψίζονται τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από την παραπάνω διαδικασία. / This dissertation refers to BCH error correction coding techniques and their implementation with VLSI architectures. At first, an introduction in the Digital Communications Systems takes place. This is followed by a description of mathematical theorems and definitions used for the error correction coding. In addition, basic coding techniques are presented emphasising in BCH Codes. The dissertation continues with the presentation of the MatLab simulation platform, as well as the functions that implement this, for the BER measurement of various BCH codes. Using this platform, a comparison is made between non binary and binary BCH codes of the same code rate as well as non binary BCH codes of different lengths and code rates. In the last part, a general architecture of a non binary BCH decoder is proposed. According to this architecture, an implementation of an octal BCH 63 symbols length, 48 symbol dimension and 4 symbols design distance code decoder, is described in depth. Finally, after the presentation of the implementation results of the described decoder in FPGA board, the conclusions that came up from the above procedure, are summarised.

Desde a década de 60, o aprimoramento das técnicas de fabricação de circuitos integrados que usam lógica binária tem levado ao aumento exponencial na densidade de dispositivos, melhoria do desempenho, redução da energia consumida e redução dos custos de fabricação dos circuitos integrados no estado da arte. Esse avanço tem sido alcançado historicamente pela miniaturização dos dispositivos que, já em escala nanométrica, começam a encontrar limites físicos para a sua redução. Com o intuito de dar continuidade ao avanço tecnológico, muitos trabalhos têm proposto a compactação da informação através do uso de lógica não binária como solução alternativa para a melhoria de desempenho de circuitos no estado da arte. Nesse sentido, diversos trabalhos foram desenvolvidos em diferentes tecnologias que vão de circuitos bipolares a dispositivos quânticos, entretanto, até o presente momento, nenhuma tecnologia demonstrou ao mesmo tempo os requisitos de desempenho, consumo, área e confiabilidade, necessários à aplicação em circuitos de alta escala de integração. Este trabalho apresenta uma nova família de circuitos de lógica quaternária com alto desempenho, baixos consumo e área e que usa tecnologia CMOS. Os circuitos desenvolvidos neste trabalho fazem uso de três fontes de alimentação e até oito diferentes transistores com diferentes tensões de limiar para realizar a lógica quaternária. São apresentados circuitos elementares como inversores e circuitos literais e com eles construídos circuitos aritméticos e multiplexadores. Os circuitos são simulados com a ferramenta SPICE usando a tecnologia TSMC 0,18 μm e os resultados são comparados com circuitos equivalentes em lógica binária. Na comparação de um somador completo quaternário de quatro bits, por exemplo, com o circuito equivalente em lógica binária, a implementação quaternária apresenta melhoria 55% na velocidade, 63% no consumo de potência e utiliza pouco mais de duas vezes o número de transistores. Este trabalho também propõe o uso de lógica quaternária em FPGA e são desenvolvidos blocos lógicos programáveis quaternários. Resultados de mapeamento lógico de circuitos aritméticos em blocos lógicos programáveis apresentam grande redução em área e consumo de potência na implementação quaternária quando comparado aos equivalentes binários. Em alguns circuitos quaternários, o consumo de potência e o número de transistores usados são reduzidos a 3% do consumo e do número de transistores usados nos circuitos equivalentes binários, enquanto o atraso crítico é duas vezes maior do que o atraso crítico binário. / Since the decade of 60, the improvement of techniques for manufacturing integrated circuits that use binary logic has led to the exponential increase in the density of devices, improving performance, reducing energy consumption and reducing costs of manufacture of integrated circuits in the state of the art. This breakthrough has been achieved historically by the miniaturization of devices, already in nano, starting to reach physical limits to their reduction. In order to give continuity to technological advancement, many studies have proposed the compaction of information through the use of non-binary logic as an alternative for the performance improvement of the state of the art circuits. Accordingly, several studies have been developed in different technologies ranging from bipolar circuits to quantum devices, however, at the moment, no technology demonstrated at the same time the performance requirements, consumption, area and reliability necessary for the application in very large scale of integration. This paper presents a new family of quaternary logic circuits with high performance, low consumption and area, which uses CMOS technology. The circuits developed in this work make use of three power supplies and up to eight different transistors with different threshold voltages, to perform the quaternary logic. Elementary circuits such as inverters and literal circuits are presented and used to implement multiplexers and arithmetic circuits. The circuits are simulated with the SPICE tool using TSMC 0.18 μm technology and the results are compared with equivalent circuits in binary logic. Comparison of a quaternary full adder of four bits, for example, with the equivalent circuit in binary logic shows 55% improvement in speed and 63% in the power consumption for the quaternary implementation and it uses little more than twice the number of transistors. This paper also proposes the use of quaternary logic in FPGA and quaternary configurable logic blocks are developed. Logical mapping results of arithmetic circuits in configurable logic blocks show great reduction in area and power consumption of the quaternary implementation compared to the equivalent binary. In some quaternary circuits, the consumption of power and the number of transistors used are reduced to 3% of consumption and the number of transistors used in the binary equivalent circuits, while the critical delay is two times higher than the binary critical delay.

Esta dissertação é composta de duas partes principais em que apresenta, em sua primeira parte, o desenvolvimento de uma arquitetura de hardware para compensação de movimento para decodificadores de vídeo segundo o padrão H.264/AVC. A segunda parte apresenta a modelagem de uma arquitetura de hardware para codificação de vídeo segundo o mesmo padrão. Também são apresentados os conceitos básicos da codificação e decodificação de vídeo digital segundo o padrão H.264/AVC. A arquitetura desenvolvida para compensação de movimento, denominada HP422- MoCHA (High Profile 4:2:2 Motion Compensation Hardware Architecture) (ZATT, 2008), baseada na arquitetura MoCHA (Motion Compensator Hardware Architecture) (AZEVEDO, 2007), suporta o conjunto de ferramentas da compensação de movimento para o perfil High 4:2:2 do H.264/AVC. Esta arquitetura está particionada em três blocos principais: Preditor de Vetores de Movimento, Acesso à Memória e Processador de Amostras. Esses blocos funcionam na forma de um pipeline, existindo buffers entre os mesmos para armazenar os resultados intermediários. A descrição foi desenvolvida com a linguagem VHDL e alcança desempenho para decodificar, em tempo real, vídeos HDTV 1920x1080 a 30 quadros por segundo. Na literatura atual não foi encontrada nenhuma solução detalhada para a compensação de movimento no perfil High 4:2:2 do padrão H.264/AVC. Uma nova estrutura para interpolação de amostra na compensação de movimento foi proposta, sendo que sua versão para o Perfil Main se mostra 17% mais compacta, em termos de gates, que a solução mais compacta encontrada na literatura, sem degradação de performance. A segunda parte do texto detalha a modelagem de uma arquitetura de codificação de vídeo segundo o H.264/AVC. A descrição utiliza a linguagem SystemC e consumiu aproximadamente 15.000 linhas de código. Seu projeto foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de codificar vídeo H.264/AVC segundo o perfil Main do padrão com desempenho para codificar vídeos 1920x1080 em tempo real, a 30 quadros por segundo. A modelagem alcançou o objetivo principal de chegar a uma implementação funcional de um codificador, embora assumindo diversas restrições de codificação, permitindo a caracterização temporal e de comunicação do codificador. Dessa forma, o modelo se mostra uma poderosa ferramenta para o desenvolvimento do sistema de codificação em HW, desde a etapa de projeto até a verificação final. Não foi encontrado na literatura, até o presente momento, nenhum trabalho que descreva uma modelagem em alto nível de um hardware para o codificador, ou mesmo para o decodificador, de vídeo H.264/AVC. / This thesis is comprised by two main parts that present, in the first part, the development of a motion compensation hardware architecture for video decoders in compliance with the H.264/AVC standard. The second part presents a hardware architecture modeling for a video encoder compliant to the same video standard. The digital video coding basics in the H.264/AVC standard are also reviewed. The developed motion compensation hardware architecture, named HP422-MoCHA (High Profile 4:2:2 Motion Compensation Hardware Architecture) (ZATT, 2008), is based on the MoCHA (Motion Compensator Hardware Architecture) (AZEVEDO, 2007) architecture. It supports the motion compensation toolset for the H.264/AVC High 4:2:2 profile. This architecture is divided in three main modules: Motion Vector Predictor, Memory Access and Sample Processor. These modules work in a pipeline and are interfaced by buffers to store the intermediate data. The architecture was described in the VHDL language and reaches the required throughput for real time decoding of HDTV 1920x1080 video sequences at 30 frames per second. In the current literature another detailed motion compensation solution for the H.264/AVC High 4:2:2 could not be found. A new filtering organization for the motion compensation sample interpolator was proposed and its Main profile version reduces 17% the gate count in comparison to the smallest solution found in the literature, without any performance degradation. The second part of the thesis details the modeling of a hardware architecture for a video encoder for the H.264/AVC standard. The model was described in SystemC language and used 15,000 source code lines. The project was designed for real time encoding of Main profile H.264/AVC for 1920x1080 video sequences at 30 frames per second. The model supported the main objective which was to obtain a functional encoder implementation, despite of the several encoding restrictions, permitting the temporal and communications characterization of the encoder. The model is presented as a powerful tool for the hardware video encoder development, as it is useful from the initial design to the final verification. No other hardware encoder or decoder modeling description was found in the current literature for the H.264/AVC video coding standard.