A common configuration in buses is that the engine is placed in the rear of the bus and that the batteries are placed in thefront of the bus due to optimization of the distribution of the weight. The long wires running between the engine and the batteries together with large power consuming units, such as fans and air condition units, result in voltage drops. The voltage drops contribute to the battery charging voltage level being lower than desired. The aim with this thesis work is to implement a control system that increases the battery voltage level when the voltage drops occur. Measurements are performed on an articulated bus that is in focus throughout the whole thesis work. A model for the electrical circuit of the bus is created and used when investigating the stability of the control system. The control system isimplemented in the bus, where also verification tests are performed. The verification tests confirm that the control system raises the battery charging voltage to the desired level. The increased voltage level makes the batteries reach a higher state of charge in shorter time since the control system provides the batteries with more charge.

Fortums electric grid in Norra Djurgårdsstaden is a test grid for smart equipment and they are investigating new techniques and ways to improve the quality of the grid. With the quality improvements that are researched, a "self-restoring system" is a part of the research with the intention to lower the amount of outages and shorten the time it takes to restore faults. This thesis can be seen as a part of the optimization process of the grid in Norra Djurgårdsstaden where the benefits with a basic self-restoring system have been investigated on low voltage level. In the thesis the self-restoring system has been classified into a "basic" and an "advanced" category. The basic self-restoring system cross-connect several feeding paths by cross-connecting different low voltage grids and use mechanical equipment to change between cables when a fault in a cable occurs. The advanced self-restoring system uses several feeders and smart grid technology with equipment and softwares which communicate and visualize the grid. The difference between the systems is that the advanced system can visualize the grid and is able to tell when and where faults have occurred to a more detailed level. The advanced system can also calculate the power available and does not need the same amount of cables for redundancy because it can command users to lower their consumption when an outage has occurred. A decision was made to only investigate the technique on low voltage level because a basic system already exists on medium voltage in Norra Djurgårdsstaden. Results show that investing in a basic self-restoring system in Norra Djurgårdsstaden would cost about 2 million SEK and lower the total amount of outages for the customers in the area from 45 minutes per customer and year down to about 41 minutes. The reason why the decrease is only four minutes per year and customer is because faults occurring on higher voltage level cannot be reduced with the system. It is totally about 10 % of the faults that occur on low voltage level. One conclusion from the thesis is that the reduction in quality costs which are because to the lowered outages will not be enough to pay back the investment. More outage-time per customer and year need to be prevented with the system or the customers need to value reduced outages significantly more.

Orientador: Luís Carlos Origa de Oliveira / Resumo: Na busca de soluções inovadoras para atender o aumento da demanda de consumo de energia elétrica, as fontes de energia de natureza fotovoltaica tem sido um dos principais pilares deste seguimento. São fontes intrinsicamente renováveis e o impacto sobre o meio ambiente resultante dos processos de produção de energia elétrica é praticamente desprezível, contribuindo de forma inequívoca para a sustentabilidade do planeta. Neste cenário, a expansão das aplicações de geradores fotovoltaicos é notável em praticamente todas as regiões industrializadas no mundo e, em alguns casos, já representa uma parcela significativa dos insumos energéticos de países desenvolvidos e em desenvolvimento. Apesar dos benefícios proporcionados pelo crescente uso desta tecnologia, em geral, as redes elétricas de distribuição de energia em operação, não foram planejadas para incorporar esta geração distribuída, em larga escala. Estudos recentes revelam que 10% de penetração de sistemas fotovoltaicos em relação a demanda da rede já pode causar impactos relevantes sobre o comportamento do sistema elétrico, sobretudo no tocante à regulação de tensão. Neste contexto, este trabalho tem por meta investigar as condições operacionais de redes de distribuição de energia, sob a influência de sistema fotovoltaico com relação aos impactos produzidos no perfil de tensão dos alimentadores. Assim, na perspectiva dos diferentes procedimentos convencionais utilizados para adequação dos níveis de tensão, discute-se a apli... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: In the search for innovative solutions to meet the increasing demand for electricity consumption, photovoltaic energy sources have been one of the main pillars of this follow-up. They are intrinsically renewable sources and the impact on the environment resulting from the processes of electric power production is practically negligible, contributing unequivocally to the sustainability of the planet. In this scenario, the expansion of photovoltaic applications is notable in practically every industrialized region in the world, and in some cases already represents a significant share of the energy inputs of developed and developing countries. Despite the benefits provided by the growing use of this technology, in general, power distribution networks in operation were not planned to incorporate this distributed generation on a large scale. Recent studies show that 10% penetration of photovoltaic systems in relation to the demand of the grid can already have a significant impact on the behavior of the electrical system, especially in relation to voltage regulation. In this context, this work aims to investigate the operational conditions of power distribution networks under the influence of photovoltaic system in relation to the impacts produced on the voltage profile of the feeders. Thus, in the perspective of the different conventional procedures used to adjust the voltage levels, the applicability of some possible solutions is discussed, based on the R / X ratio behavior in th... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Neste trabalho propõe-se um modelo de otimização que visa alocar a geração distribuída e determinar a injeção de potência ótima neste ponto, considerados três níveis de carga. Com este fim, utiliza-se uma função objetivo onde são mensuradas as perdas de potência ativa no sistema de distribuição, assim como os desvios de tensão em cada barra, sendo estes termos da função objetivo agrupados por meio de uma constante de proporcionalidade. O modelo apresenta ainda uma série de restrições, sendo estas as variáveis de decisão quanto a alocação da GD, fluxo de potência, limite de injeção de potência no sistema, relação entre as potências aparente, ativa e reativa, fator de potência e fluxo reverso de potência na subestação. Neste contexto emprega-se programação não linear com derivadas descontínuas para resolver matematicamente o modelo do sistema elétrico de potência. Quanto aos resultados, o que se observa é a grande capacidade que a GD possui, quando adequadamente ajustada, em melhorar os valores dos principais parâmetros computados neste estudo. / In this work it is proposed an optimization model that aims to allocate distributed generation and determine the optimum power injection at this point, considering three load levels. For this purpose, it is utilized an objective function which measures active power losses in the distribution system, as well as the voltage deviations at each bus, being these terms of the objective function grouped by a constant of proportionality. The model also presents a series of constraints, which are the decision variables for the allocation of DG, power flow, power injection limit on the system, the relationship between the apparent, active and reactive power, power factor and substation reverse power flow. In this context it is employed a nonlinear with discontinuous derivatives programming to mathematically solve the power system model. As for the results, what is observed is the strong influence that DG has, when properly adjusted, in the improvement of the values of the main parameters computed in this study.

Neste trabalho propõe-se um modelo de otimização que visa alocar a geração distribuída e determinar a injeção de potência ótima neste ponto, considerados três níveis de carga. Com este fim, utiliza-se uma função objetivo onde são mensuradas as perdas de potência ativa no sistema de distribuição, assim como os desvios de tensão em cada barra, sendo estes termos da função objetivo agrupados por meio de uma constante de proporcionalidade. O modelo apresenta ainda uma série de restrições, sendo estas as variáveis de decisão quanto a alocação da GD, fluxo de potência, limite de injeção de potência no sistema, relação entre as potências aparente, ativa e reativa, fator de potência e fluxo reverso de potência na subestação. Neste contexto emprega-se programação não linear com derivadas descontínuas para resolver matematicamente o modelo do sistema elétrico de potência. Quanto aos resultados, o que se observa é a grande capacidade que a GD possui, quando adequadamente ajustada, em melhorar os valores dos principais parâmetros computados neste estudo. / In this work it is proposed an optimization model that aims to allocate distributed generation and determine the optimum power injection at this point, considering three load levels. For this purpose, it is utilized an objective function which measures active power losses in the distribution system, as well as the voltage deviations at each bus, being these terms of the objective function grouped by a constant of proportionality. The model also presents a series of constraints, which are the decision variables for the allocation of DG, power flow, power injection limit on the system, the relationship between the apparent, active and reactive power, power factor and substation reverse power flow. In this context it is employed a nonlinear with discontinuous derivatives programming to mathematically solve the power system model. As for the results, what is observed is the strong influence that DG has, when properly adjusted, in the improvement of the values of the main parameters computed in this study.

Neste trabalho propõe-se um modelo de otimização que visa alocar a geração distribuída e determinar a injeção de potência ótima neste ponto, considerados três níveis de carga. Com este fim, utiliza-se uma função objetivo onde são mensuradas as perdas de potência ativa no sistema de distribuição, assim como os desvios de tensão em cada barra, sendo estes termos da função objetivo agrupados por meio de uma constante de proporcionalidade. O modelo apresenta ainda uma série de restrições, sendo estas as variáveis de decisão quanto a alocação da GD, fluxo de potência, limite de injeção de potência no sistema, relação entre as potências aparente, ativa e reativa, fator de potência e fluxo reverso de potência na subestação. Neste contexto emprega-se programação não linear com derivadas descontínuas para resolver matematicamente o modelo do sistema elétrico de potência. Quanto aos resultados, o que se observa é a grande capacidade que a GD possui, quando adequadamente ajustada, em melhorar os valores dos principais parâmetros computados neste estudo. / In this work it is proposed an optimization model that aims to allocate distributed generation and determine the optimum power injection at this point, considering three load levels. For this purpose, it is utilized an objective function which measures active power losses in the distribution system, as well as the voltage deviations at each bus, being these terms of the objective function grouped by a constant of proportionality. The model also presents a series of constraints, which are the decision variables for the allocation of DG, power flow, power injection limit on the system, the relationship between the apparent, active and reactive power, power factor and substation reverse power flow. In this context it is employed a nonlinear with discontinuous derivatives programming to mathematically solve the power system model. As for the results, what is observed is the strong influence that DG has, when properly adjusted, in the improvement of the values of the main parameters computed in this study.

Många elektriska apparater är i behov av reaktiv effekt för att kunna fungera. Transport av reaktiv effekt tar onödig plats av den tillgängliga kapaciteten i elnätet, därför används kondensatorbatterier nära slutanvändaren för att generera reaktiv effekt. Därmed genereras och förbrukas den reaktiva effekten i en avskild del av nätet. Tillkoppling av kondensatorbatterier ger upphov till transienter som kan skada andra närliggande komponenter. Utifrån det verkliga ställverket Stallbacka i Trollhättan har denna rapport analyserat de transienter som uppstår efter tillkoppling av ett kondensatorbatteri inom mellanspänningsområdet. Analysen har innefattat hur stora transienterna blir efter olika förutsättningar och scenarier. Resultatet visade att transienterna i detta fall aldrig nådde upp till några allvarliga nivåer, och därmed klarade komponenterna sig med god marginal. Huruvida transienterna påverkar elkvaliteten är oklart, då det inte finns några definierade krav. Slutligen skulle ett beräkningsverktyg för förutspådda transienter tas fram. Beräkningsverktyget blev aldrig fullständigt på grund av den ohanterliga lösningen som erhölls. / Many electrical devices need reactive power to operate. Transmission of reactive power occupies a proportion of the available capacity in the power system and therefore capacitor banks are used near to the end user to generate reactive power. Thus, the reactive effect is generated and consumed in a separate part of the power system. Capacitor banks switching causes transients which may damage the surrounding components. Based on the real substation Stallbacka in Trollhättan, this study has analysed capacitor banks switching transients within the medium voltage level. The analysis has covered the size of these transients according to different conditions and scenarios. The result showed that the transients in this case never reached serious levels, thus there was no impact on the components. It is not clear whether the transients affect the power quality because there are no defined limits.  A calculation tool to the predicted transients was supposed to be created in the process. This calculation tool was never completed due to the unmanageable solution that was obtained.

Táto diplomová práca sa zaoberá návrhom zariadenia schopného vysoko presného merania vibrácií za použitia piezoelektrického akcelerometra. Zariadenie je určené na vyhodnocovanie zdravotného stavu strojov, najmä elektrických strojov ako elektromotor, veterná turbína a iné. Za účelom dosiahnutia vysoko presného a vysoko lineárneho merania v spektre extrémne nízkych frekvencií siahajúcich až ku jednosmerným napätím, cez sub-hertzové pásma po desiatky hertzov, ale aj vo vyšších frekvenciách, bola vyžadovaná možnosť použitia prístupu s jednosmernou väzbou zvaného "posúvanie napäťovej úrovne" a následné vyhodnotenie a porovnanie prístupu so striedavou väzbou, ktorý sa bežne používa pre pripojenie piezoelektrického akcelerometra.

Eine angemessene Qualität der Elektroenergie ist Grundvoraussetzung für den störungsfreien Betrieb aller angeschlossenen Geräte und Anlagen und spielt in den Verteilungsnetzen moderner Industriegesellschaften wie Deutschland eine zentrale Rolle. Die Elektroenergiequalität (EEQ) wird in Strom- und Spannungsqualität unterteilt. Während die Stromqualität maßgeblich im Verantwortungsbereich der Hersteller von Geräten und Anlagen liegt, sind für die Sicherung einer angemessenen Spannungsqualität im Wesentlichen die Netzbetreiber verantwortlich. Durch die technische Weiterentwicklung bspw. neuer Gerätetechnologien und die zunehmende Integration dezentraler Erzeugungsanlagen wie Photovoltaikanlagen ist zu erwarten, dass die EEQ auch künftig weiter an Bedeutung gewinnt. Die EEQ im Niederspannungsverteilungsnetz ist abhängig von Ort und Zeit und wird durch verschiedene Qualitätskenngrößen beschrieben. Die örtliche und zeitliche Abhängigkeit resultieren aus einer Vielzahl verschiedener Einflussfaktoren, welche sich entweder der elektrischen oder der nicht-elektrischen Umgebung des betrachteten Verteilungsnetzes zuordnen lassen. Die elektrische Umgebung wird durch die Art und Anzahl angeschlossener Verbraucher bzw. Erzeuger (Abnehmer- bzw. Erzeugerstruktur) sowie Struktur und technische Parameter des Verteilungsnetzes (Netzstruktur) bestimmt. Die nicht-elektrische Umgebung umfasst u.a. Einflüsse der klimatischen Umgebung wie bspw. Temperatur oder Globalstrahlung. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die systematische Identifikation korrelativer Zusammenhänge zwischen den genannten Umgebungseinflüssen und der EEQ sowie deren Quantifizierung auf Basis geeigneter Indizes und Kenngrößen. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit helfen grundlegende Prinzipien der Ausprägung der Elektroenergiequalität im öffentlichen Verteilungsnetz besser zu verstehen sowie die Verteilungsnetze im Hinblick auf die Elektroenergiequalität zu charakterisieren und zu klassifizieren. Analog zu den Standard-Lastprofilen erfolgt die Definition von Standard-Qualitätsprofilen. / Power quality levels in public low voltage grids are influenced by many factors which can either be assigned to the electrical environment (connected consumers, connected genera-tion, network characteristics) or to the non-electrical environment (e.g. climatic conditions) at the measurement site. Type and amount of connected consumers (consumer topology) are expected to have a very high impact on power quality (PQ) levels. The generation topology is characterized by number and kind of equipment and generating installations like photovoltaic systems which are connected to the LV grid. The electrical parameters of the grid define the network topology. The parameters which are most suitable to describe each of the three topologies and the climatic environment will be identified. Voltage and current quality in public low voltage (LV) grids vary depending on location and time. They are quantified by a set of different parameters which either belong to events (e.g. dips) or to variations (e.g. harmonics). This thesis exclusively addresses continuous parameters describing variations. Continuous phenomena like harmonics are closely linked to an one-day-cycle which implies a more or less periodic behavior of the continuous power quality parameters. Consumer topologies such as office buildings or residential areas differ in their use of equipment. Time series analysis is used to distinguish between different consumer topologies and to identify characteristic weeks. The clustering of one-day time series is applied to identify characteristic days within the weeks of certain topologies. Based on the results, emission profiles for certain current quality parameters of different consumer topologies will be defined. Due to the characteristic harmonic current emission of certain consumer topologies which represents the typical user behaviour a classification system is developed. It is used to automatically classify the emission profiles of harmonic currents for unknown measurements and to estimate a likely consumer topology. A classification measure is introduced in order to identify unusual or false classified emission profiles. The usage behaviour of equipment by customers usually varies over the year. Subsequently, the levels of PQ parameters like harmonics may show seasonal variations which are identified by using newly defined parameters. The introduction of new device technologies on a large scale like the transition from incandescent to LED lamps might result in long-term changes to the levels of PQ parameters (e.g. harmonics). The analysis of the long-term behavior (trend) will be applied in order to quantify global trends (looking on the measurement duration as a whole) and local trends (looking on individual segments of the whole time series).

Eine angemessene Qualität der Elektroenergie ist Grundvoraussetzung für den störungsfreien Betrieb aller angeschlossenen Geräte und Anlagen und spielt in den Verteilungsnetzen moderner Industriegesellschaften wie Deutschland eine zentrale Rolle. Die Elektroenergiequalität (EEQ) wird in Strom- und Spannungsqualität unterteilt. Während die Stromqualität maßgeblich im Verantwortungsbereich der Hersteller von Geräten und Anlagen liegt, sind für die Sicherung einer angemessenen Spannungsqualität im Wesentlichen die Netzbetreiber verantwortlich. Durch die technische Weiterentwicklung bspw. neuer Gerätetechnologien und die zunehmende Integration dezentraler Erzeugungsanlagen wie Photovoltaikanlagen ist zu erwarten, dass die EEQ auch künftig weiter an Bedeutung gewinnt. Die EEQ im Niederspannungsverteilungsnetz ist abhängig von Ort und Zeit und wird durch verschiedene Qualitätskenngrößen beschrieben. Die örtliche und zeitliche Abhängigkeit resultieren aus einer Vielzahl verschiedener Einflussfaktoren, welche sich entweder der elektrischen oder der nicht-elektrischen Umgebung des betrachteten Verteilungsnetzes zuordnen lassen. Die elektrische Umgebung wird durch die Art und Anzahl angeschlossener Verbraucher bzw. Erzeuger (Abnehmer- bzw. Erzeugerstruktur) sowie Struktur und technische Parameter des Verteilungsnetzes (Netzstruktur) bestimmt. Die nicht-elektrische Umgebung umfasst u.a. Einflüsse der klimatischen Umgebung wie bspw. Temperatur oder Globalstrahlung. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die systematische Identifikation korrelativer Zusammenhänge zwischen den genannten Umgebungseinflüssen und der EEQ sowie deren Quantifizierung auf Basis geeigneter Indizes und Kenngrößen. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit helfen grundlegende Prinzipien der Ausprägung der Elektroenergiequalität im öffentlichen Verteilungsnetz besser zu verstehen sowie die Verteilungsnetze im Hinblick auf die Elektroenergiequalität zu charakterisieren und zu klassifizieren. Analog zu den Standard-Lastprofilen erfolgt die Definition von Standard-Qualitätsprofilen. / Power quality levels in public low voltage grids are influenced by many factors which can either be assigned to the electrical environment (connected consumers, connected genera-tion, network characteristics) or to the non-electrical environment (e.g. climatic conditions) at the measurement site. Type and amount of connected consumers (consumer topology) are expected to have a very high impact on power quality (PQ) levels. The generation topology is characterized by number and kind of equipment and generating installations like photovoltaic systems which are connected to the LV grid. The electrical parameters of the grid define the network topology. The parameters which are most suitable to describe each of the three topologies and the climatic environment will be identified. Voltage and current quality in public low voltage (LV) grids vary depending on location and time. They are quantified by a set of different parameters which either belong to events (e.g. dips) or to variations (e.g. harmonics). This thesis exclusively addresses continuous parameters describing variations. Continuous phenomena like harmonics are closely linked to an one-day-cycle which implies a more or less periodic behavior of the continuous power quality parameters. Consumer topologies such as office buildings or residential areas differ in their use of equipment. Time series analysis is used to distinguish between different consumer topologies and to identify characteristic weeks. The clustering of one-day time series is applied to identify characteristic days within the weeks of certain topologies. Based on the results, emission profiles for certain current quality parameters of different consumer topologies will be defined. Due to the characteristic harmonic current emission of certain consumer topologies which represents the typical user behaviour a classification system is developed. It is used to automatically classify the emission profiles of harmonic currents for unknown measurements and to estimate a likely consumer topology. A classification measure is introduced in order to identify unusual or false classified emission profiles. The usage behaviour of equipment by customers usually varies over the year. Subsequently, the levels of PQ parameters like harmonics may show seasonal variations which are identified by using newly defined parameters. The introduction of new device technologies on a large scale like the transition from incandescent to LED lamps might result in long-term changes to the levels of PQ parameters (e.g. harmonics). The analysis of the long-term behavior (trend) will be applied in order to quantify global trends (looking on the measurement duration as a whole) and local trends (looking on individual segments of the whole time series).