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Nos últimos anos, cada vez mais a participação social é um fator preponderante para a consolidação da democracia e o desenvolvimento da cidadania. Com a participação da sociedade civil surgem conflitos diante de uma cultura política centralizadora, tanto nas decisões, como na manutenção do poder por grupos dominantes dos recursos políticos, econômicos e culturais, onde o consenso e as consequências das políticas públicas em relação à governança da água afetam a sociedade civil. Fatos recentes, que envolve a crise hídrica na Macrometrópole Paulista (MMP), denunciam a escassez e revelam a atual e real gestão em relação à água. Indispensável à sobrevivência humana, tal contexto desencadeou novas articulações entre governo, instituições e sociedade. Neste cenário, a luta pela questão ambiental passou a ocupar arenas antes não ocupadas. A participação da sociedade civil na gestão da água desvenda vários conflitos ao envolver diferentes atores diante da desigualdade e das condições de negociação. Neste sentido, tais conflitos desencadeiam arranjos entre os atores sociais que procuram influenciar o processo decisório institucional, apesar de tal análise focar a sociedade civil externa à institucionalidade estabelecida. A presente Tese buscou analisar a atuação da sociedade civil frente à crise hídrica na MMP, ou seja, foca a sociedade civil e seus atores na busca de soluções para enfrentar a crise e propor soluções diante do problema apresentado. Ao enriquecer a reflexão sobre os caminhos alternativos, com a participação da sociedade civil, busca propostas diante da escassez hídrica, uma vez que a crise atual não se refere apenas ao abastecimento, mas também ao modelo de gestão e de efetividade da governança. Utilizou como fundamentos de análise, tanto a escola europeia, como a americana, de teorias dos movimentos sociais. A pesquisa qualitativa, de caráter interdisciplinar, envolveu o desenho da uma cronologia da crise e conta com o estudo de caso, a partir de entrevistas e o acompanhamento dos processos de participação da sociedade civil e seus atores. / In recent years, more and more social participation is a major factor for the consolidation of democracy and the development of citizenship. With the participation of civil society conflict arise before a coordinating political culture, both in decisions such as the maintenance of power by dominant groups of the political, economic and cultural resources, where the consensus and the consequences of public policies in relation to the governance of water affect civil society. Recent events involving the water crisis on macro-metropolis of São Paulo (MMP), denounce the scarcity and reveal the real and current water management. Essential for human survival, this context has unleashed new joints between Government, institutions and society. In this scenario, the struggle for environmental issue occupied arenas before not occupied. The participation of civil society in water management unveils several conflicts involving different actors on inequality and trading conditions. In this sense, such conflicts trigger arrangements between the social actors who seek to influence the institutional decision-making process, although such analysis focus on civil society outside established institutions. The present Thesis sought to analyze the performance of civil society vis-à-vis the water crisis in the MMP, namely, focuses on civil society and its actors in the search for solutions to address the crisis and propose solutions before the problem presented. To enrich the reflection on the alternate routes, with the participation of civil society, seeking proposals on the water shortage, since the current crisis does not refer only to the supply, but also the management and effectiveness of governance. Used as a basis for analysis, both the European school, as the American theories of social movements. The qualitative research, interdisciplinary character, involved the design of a chronology of the crisis and the case study, from interviews and monitoring of the processes of participation of civil society and its actors.

Nos últimos anos, cada vez mais a participação social é um fator preponderante para a consolidação da democracia e o desenvolvimento da cidadania. Com a participação da sociedade civil surgem conflitos diante de uma cultura política centralizadora, tanto nas decisões, como na manutenção do poder por grupos dominantes dos recursos políticos, econômicos e culturais, onde o consenso e as consequências das políticas públicas em relação à governança da água afetam a sociedade civil. Fatos recentes, que envolve a crise hídrica na Macrometrópole Paulista (MMP), denunciam a escassez e revelam a atual e real gestão em relação à água. Indispensável à sobrevivência humana, tal contexto desencadeou novas articulações entre governo, instituições e sociedade. Neste cenário, a luta pela questão ambiental passou a ocupar arenas antes não ocupadas. A participação da sociedade civil na gestão da água desvenda vários conflitos ao envolver diferentes atores diante da desigualdade e das condições de negociação. Neste sentido, tais conflitos desencadeiam arranjos entre os atores sociais que procuram influenciar o processo decisório institucional, apesar de tal análise focar a sociedade civil externa à institucionalidade estabelecida. A presente Tese buscou analisar a atuação da sociedade civil frente à crise hídrica na MMP, ou seja, foca a sociedade civil e seus atores na busca de soluções para enfrentar a crise e propor soluções diante do problema apresentado. Ao enriquecer a reflexão sobre os caminhos alternativos, com a participação da sociedade civil, busca propostas diante da escassez hídrica, uma vez que a crise atual não se refere apenas ao abastecimento, mas também ao modelo de gestão e de efetividade da governança. Utilizou como fundamentos de análise, tanto a escola europeia, como a americana, de teorias dos movimentos sociais. A pesquisa qualitativa, de caráter interdisciplinar, envolveu o desenho da uma cronologia da crise e conta com o estudo de caso, a partir de entrevistas e o acompanhamento dos processos de participação da sociedade civil e seus atores. / In recent years, more and more social participation is a major factor for the consolidation of democracy and the development of citizenship. With the participation of civil society conflict arise before a coordinating political culture, both in decisions such as the maintenance of power by dominant groups of the political, economic and cultural resources, where the consensus and the consequences of public policies in relation to the governance of water affect civil society. Recent events involving the water crisis on macro-metropolis of São Paulo (MMP), denounce the scarcity and reveal the real and current water management. Essential for human survival, this context has unleashed new joints between Government, institutions and society. In this scenario, the struggle for environmental issue occupied arenas before not occupied. The participation of civil society in water management unveils several conflicts involving different actors on inequality and trading conditions. In this sense, such conflicts trigger arrangements between the social actors who seek to influence the institutional decision-making process, although such analysis focus on civil society outside established institutions. The present Thesis sought to analyze the performance of civil society vis-à-vis the water crisis in the MMP, namely, focuses on civil society and its actors in the search for solutions to address the crisis and propose solutions before the problem presented. To enrich the reflection on the alternate routes, with the participation of civil society, seeking proposals on the water shortage, since the current crisis does not refer only to the supply, but also the management and effectiveness of governance. Used as a basis for analysis, both the European school, as the American theories of social movements. The qualitative research, interdisciplinary character, involved the design of a chronology of the crisis and the case study, from interviews and monitoring of the processes of participation of civil society and its actors.

This thesis aims first to investigate whether solar panels on the container can provide the process of desalination with energy at the desired location, as well as to dimension a photovoltaic system and battery storage that can run the facility off-grid. Then investigate whether solar cells can be an effective energy solution for Millennium Desalination Device (MDD). The results of this study show that the most annual solar production from containers is 11 510 kWh in Gobabeb, Namibia with a modular efficiency of 22,8 %, which corresponds to 8,2 % operating time per year and is the longest operating time that can be obtained from the all three scenarios. This means that with existing technology and only solar panels on the container, desalination plant is impossible to drive all year round off-grid. The installed power for driving 100 % operating time for one year is 141 kW in Gobabeb and 270 kW in Visby, the corresponding module surface will be lowest 618 m2 and 1184 m2 with modular efficiency of 22,8 %, but there are no additional spaces for all equipment like MDD, solar cells and battery in the container. If the operating time drops to 50 %, the installed power will be 71 kW in Gobabeb, the corresponding module surface will be lowest 415 m2 and battery storage capacity will be at least 160 kWh. Net volume with all equipment will be less than the volume of the container. The cost will be at least 0.2 Swedish kronor per liter of pure water produced with a life of 25 year for solar modules. Usage fee per liter of pure water is 0.03 Swedish kronor based on Gotland’s water and wastewater agency and it means MDD is not a cost-effective solution for Gotland at nowadays. But costs may fall in the future with the price reduction of solar cells and batteries. For water shortage areas, this can be a valuable way to solve the water crisis, but it also depends mostly on the area’s water price.

<p>Inequalities among different power groups are getting obvious in Kiru Valley, Tanzania mainly due to water scarcity. This paper aims to examine, by a case study, the increasing competition over irrigation water among Kiru Valley farmers in relation to socio-economic stratification. It is possible to divide the examined parts of Kiru Valley farmers into three dif-ferent power groups corresponding to their access to irrigation water. First, large-scale sugar cane farmers owned by Tanzanians with Indian origin located on strategic positions near the main rivers. Second, upstream small-scale rice cultivators receiving water from the IFAD (International Found for Agricultural Development) irrigation system and, third, downstream small-scale farmers cultivating rice in the Mapea wetland. To achieve the objectives in this study, Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques have been used and especially wealth rank-ings to measure the socio-economic stratification.</p><p>The wealth rankings demonstrate differences among Kiru Valley farmers. Those farmers connected to the IFAD irrigation system and the large-scale farmers have in higher amount a steady access to irrigation water than farmers cultivating the Mapea wetland. Consequently Mapea farmers are forced to rely on left over water from upstream IFAD farmers and sur-rounding large-scale farmers, leading to unfair distribution patterns and tensions among Kiru Valley farmers.  Finally, it has further been found that access to irrigation water is reflected in household economy. Mapea farmers have less capital goods and households properties com-pared to both IFAD-irrigators and large-scale farmers.</p>

This thesis consists of four self-contained papers, which are all related to important environmental and natural resource issues from a developing country perspective. Paper [I] concerns climate policy and addresses the potential welfare gains of introducing a technology transfer from the North (richer countries) to the South (poorer countries). The results largely depend on the environmental policy in the pre- transfer resource allocation and, in particular, whether or not the South abates its own emissions. Although the technology transfer is desirable from a “global social planners” point of view, it is shown that the incentives to use the transfer might be weak from the perspective of the North; at least if the South takes its own measures to reduce emissions. However, in a situation where the North is committed to emission reductions according to the Kyoto protocol, it is shown that there will clearly be incentives for the North to use the technology transfer in order to reach the Kyoto targets in a more cost efficient way. In paper [II], the likely effects of an environmental fiscal reform in Namibia are examined by means of a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. The results show that the introduction of an environmental fiscal reform, where taxes on natural and environmental resources (fish rents, energy and water) are recycled to the economy in different ways might give rise to benefits in terms of GDP, employment and income distribution, in addition to the environmental impacts. While subsidizing unskilled labour would give the most favourable outcome in terms of real GDP and employment impacts, a decrease in food taxes might be a more interesting option if GDP, employment, income distribution and environmental impacts are considered in combination. In paper [III], the value of irrigation water used for different crop alternatives in the Hardap region in Southern Namibia is estimated. The study finds that all crop alternatives that farmers in the region currently choose among, will remain financially viable after the planned increases in user charges. However, if full cost recovery is to be achieved in the future, substantial changes in the agricultural production will most likely be necessary. The method is also extended in order to study the potential effects on total water demand if further increases in user charges are implemented. Paper [IV] studies the likely effects of exogenous international food and oil price shocks on the Namibian economy. This is particularly interesting in a country where the domestic consumption of corn and petroleum products is mainly imported, and where water scarcity represents one of the main constraints to agricultural expansion. The results show that the Namibian economy will be negatively affected from the food and oil price increases, and water scarcity will further limit the ability of the economy to adapt to international oil and food price increases.

This dissertation is composed of three essays investigating three aspects of future water issues. The first essay focuses on an examination of water scarcity issues caused by rapid population growth and economic development in Texas. The second essay examines water scarcity under climate change scenarios in Texas. The third essay discusses arsenic-related water quality issues in the drinking water. An integrated economic, hydrological, and environmental model is developed for the first two essays by implicitly incorporating uncertainty about future climate, water demand from all types of water use, a spatial river flow relationship, interaction between ground and surface water, institutional regulations, and the possibilities of inter-basin water transfers (IBTs). In studying water scarcity under economic growth and population growth, we find that while some cities and counties have sufficient water, there are some other cities and counties (especially Dallas, Fort Worth and Austin) facing different degrees of water scarcity problems. In studying the climate change impact, four Global Circulation Models (GCMs) with three Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRESs) yield consistent results. Water scarcity becomes even more severe for cities. Texas realizes slight gains in earlier periods and a net loss beginning in 2060. This study finds that twelve IBTs, if there is no climate change, and fourteen IBTs, under the climate change scenario, will be economically feasible in 2060. These IBTs can not only greatly reduce water scarcity, but also create new growth opportunity for Houston. Water is transferred from in-stream flow in source basins. There is no significant impact on other sectors except in-stream flow and water flow out to bay. In the third essay, a two-stage structural model is developed to model household risk-averting behavior with respect to arsenic-related mortality risk in the drinking water. The empirical results suggest that risk perceptions for the parents and children are important in the decision of how much to spend on water treatment, but not in whether or not to treat water. Parents in our sample displayed mixed altruism. The information generated by this dissertation can help state agencies to manage water resources and to improve water-related human health, especially health for children, more effectively and more efficiently.

El boom agroexportador en Ica ha disparado dos procesos interrelacionados: la generación de escenarios de escasez hídrica y la emergencia de un nuevo actor social en la región, el grupo agroexportador. Esto ha generado una reconfiguración de las relaciones sociales y políticas en el espacio local, donde los agroexportadores se han posicionado como el actor dominante en la gestión de los recursos hídricos subterráneos, disputando incluso los esfuerzos de regulación del Estado. Así, la pregunta que guía esta investigación es ¿cómo los agroexportadores han concentrado poder hídrico en Ica? y ¿cómo ejercen este poder? El artículo argumenta que el poder hídrico surge a partir del control del agua subterránea, control que ha recaído en manos del grupo agroexportador gracias a su capacidad de concentrar y ejercer tres dimensiones de poder: la capacidad económica, el conocimiento técnico y la coerción. En el desarrollo de este argumento, se muestra que el dominio de los agroexportadores sobre otros actores y su primacía en el control de los recursos hídricos no son facultades arrebatadas sino otorgadas, siendo legitimada por discursos de eficiencia, desarrollo regional y empleo pleno. / The agro-export boom in the coastal region of Ica has caused two interrelated processes: the generation of water scarcity scenarios and the emergency of the agro-exporter group as a new social actor. The role assigned to agro-exporters in the narrative of regional development has given them a dominant position in the management of Ica water resources. This has generated a re-configurationof social and political relationships at the local space that has allowed them to be able of even contest State’s efforts to regulate groundwater use. Thus, the questions guiding this research are: how the agro-exporter group has concentrated water power in Ica? And how do they exercise this power? This paper argues that control over groundwater resources has fallen into the hands of the agro-exporter group due to their capacity to concentrate and exercise three dimensions of power: economic capacity, technical knowledge and coercion. In developing this argument, we explain how the concentration of these power dimensions has influenced in the production of water scarcity scenarios to certain groups of population, without confronting much resistance despite of it.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-31T13:24:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 JoaoMFS_DISSERT.pdf: 1731958 bytes, checksum: 71ef7d1af5eeb687dbc5294c14780b93 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-25 / The prevailing water scarcity in the Brazilian semiarid restricts the availability of drinking water, encouraging the practice of reuse primarily in agricultural production. This study aimed to analyze the performance of decanting-digester, wetland and solar reactor for the treatment of domestic sewage Milagres rural community, Apodi-RN. During the period of 1 to 22 December 2010, equivalent to 48 to 70 days after planting of Pennisetum purpureum, samples were collected from domestic sewage at different stages of treatment in four replications in time, to determine physicochemical and microbiological characteristics. The results indicated that there was significant removal of turbidity, total and fecal coliforms, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total suspended solids, total solids, phosphorus, total nitrogen and oils and greases using the set of decanting-digester with biological filters, wetland and solar reactor. The combination of solar radiation of 25.16 MJ m-2 d-1, 0.10 m blade effluent and solar exposure of 12 hours Apodi-RN allowed up to 99.99% removal of fecal coliforms and effluent treated introduces microbiological standard that meets the state guidelines for fertigation of crops not eaten raw / A escassez hídrica predominante no semiárido brasileiro restringe a disponibilidade de água potável, incentivando a prática do reuso principalmente na produção agrícola. O presente trabalho objetivou analisar o desempenho de decanto-digestor, sistema alagado construído e reator solar no tratamento de esgoto doméstico do assentamento Milagres, Apodi-RN. De 1 a 22 de dezembro de 2010, equivalente ao período de 48 a 70 dias após o plantio de capim elefante (Pennisetum purpureum), foram coletadas amostras do esgoto doméstico nas distintas etapas de tratamento, em quatro repetições no tempo, para determinação de características físico-químicas e microbiológicas. Os resultados indicaram que houve remoção significativa de turbidez, coliformes totais e termotolerantes, demanda bioquímica de oxigênio, demanda química de oxigênio, sólidos totais, sólidos suspensos, fósforo total, nitrogênio total e óleos e graxas com o uso do conjunto de decanto-digestor com filtros biológicos, sistema alagado construído e reator solar. A combinação de radiação solar de 25,16 MJ m-2 d-1, lâmina de 0,10 m de efluente e tempo de exposição solar de 12 horas em Apodi-RN permitiu remoção de até 99,99% dos coliformes termotolerantes e o efluente tratado apresenta padrão microbiológico que atende as diretrizes estaduais para fertirrigação de cultivos agrícolas não consumidos crus

MOURA, Miguel Ângelo Barreto da. Os custos totais da água como um bem econômico e social no município da Praia (Cabo Verde). 2011. 109 f. : Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Ceará,Pró-reitoria de Pesquisa e Pós-graduação, Programa de Pós-graduação em Desenvolvimento e Meio Ambiente, Fortaleza-CE, 2011. / Submitted by Nádja Goes (nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-04-04T14:03:09Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2011_dis_mabmoura.pdf: 988915 bytes, checksum: f684c276f9b8a0e2ed4994280cee8b39 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Nádja Goes(nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-04-04T14:04:17Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2011_dis_mabmoura.pdf: 988915 bytes, checksum: f684c276f9b8a0e2ed4994280cee8b39 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-04T14:04:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2011_dis_mabmoura.pdf: 988915 bytes, checksum: f684c276f9b8a0e2ed4994280cee8b39 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / A crença antiga na visão da água como um bem livre vem acentuando ainda mais as dificuldades de acesso em quantidade e qualidade para as sociedades ao redor do mundo, nomeadamente nos países em desenvolvimento e para as classes menos favorecidas. A Agenda 21 e a Declaração de Dublin (ONU, 1992) tiveram o mérito de colocar a água como um “bem econômico” no centro do debate em nível global. É neste contexto que este trabalho se propõe avaliar os custos totais da água no arquipélago de Cabo Verde, país que enfrenta o problema de escassez de maneira crescente em razão, entre outros fatores, do aumento da população e do crescimento da atividade econômica. Especificamente, esta pesquisa é realizada no Concelho da Praia1, onde se encontra a capital do País, a qual enfrenta altos níveis de escassez de água, portanto, podendo resultar em elevados custos econômicos e sociais para a população e para a economia, principalmente pela descontinuidade da oferta e os mecanismos de racionamento da água. A Agência de Regulação Econômica (ARE) e o Conselho Nacional de Águas (CNAG) de Cabo Verde têm abordado o custo da água com base na análise financeira, levantando os custos de manutenção e operação dos sistemas de produção e distribuição de água que servem de base na definição das tarifas. Contrariamente, este trabalho baseou-se na abordagem de Rogers et al. (1998), que preconizam a avaliação do custo total que corresponde à soma do custo total de provisão e dos custos econômicos, incluídos nestes as externalidades e o custo de oportunidades. Os resultados revelaram que, no Concelho da Praia, os custos totais da água são da ordem de ECV 2.743.057.388,00. Este valor representa 4,24% do valor do PIB em 2007. O custo da água por metro cúbico atinge o montante de ECV 1.245,74 (11,30 Euros), um valor bastante elevado para os padrões de vida local. Os custos econômicos totais representam noventa e seis por cento (96%) dos custos totais da água no Município, o que enfatiza a importância deste componente. Por último, o custo total de provisão, aquele que a Agência de Regulação Econômica considera no desenho de tarifas em Cabo Verde, foi avaliado em torno de duzentos trinta e sete escudos (ECV 237,71) por metro cúbico de água, um valor que é compatível com a tarifa média, atualmente em vigor, contudo, muito abaixo do valor que é pago pelas famílias não ligadas à rede pública (ECV 433,33⁄m3). / Most of the people around the globe believe that water is a free good. However, increasing difficulties of access, both in quantity and quality around the world, particularly in developing countries and for the lower income people is changing this view. The Agenda 21 and the Dublin Declaration (UN, 1992) had the merit of putting the water as an "economic good" in the center of the debate at the global level. In this context, the present study aims to evaluate the full costs of water in the Archipelago of Cape Verde, a country where the scarcity is growing, due to, among other factors, the population growth and increasing of economic activities. This research was conducted in the municipality of Praia, where the Capital of the country is located, which face also, higher levels of water scarcity. Such scarcity in this Municipality, therefore, is resulting in high economic and social costs for the population and the economy activities as well, mainly due to the discontinuity on supply. The Economic Regulation Agency (ARE) and the National Water Council (CNAG) in Cape Verde have addressed the cost of water, based on financial analysis, by raising the costs of maintenance and operation of systems of production and distribution of water and used data as a basis in setting water charges. In contrast however, this dissertation is based on the approach of Rogers et al. (1998) who call for the assessment of the full cost, which is the sum of the full cost of provision and economic costs, which include the externalities and opportunity costs. The study results revealed that in the municipality of Praia, the full costs of water are of ECV 2,743,057,388.00. This figure represents 4.24% of GDP in 2007. The cost per cubic meter of water is of CVE 1.245,74 (11.30 Euro). The total economic costs represent ninety-six percent (96%) of full cost of water in the municipality. Finally, the full cost of provision, in which the Economic Regulation Agency consider to design and to model the water prices in Cape Verde, was evaluated at around two hundred thirtyseven escudos (CVE 237.71) per cubic meter of water. This figure is far below the value which is paid by households not connected to the public (ECV 433.33 / m3).