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Increased extreme weather events caused by climate change and other environmental impacts, are affecting already vulnerable people predominantly. These are populations with the least resilience to disasters. As a consequence, there is a higher demand for humanitarian aid which is expected to continuously increase in the face of anthropogenic emissions. Such growing need is in turn met by growing commitment from the humanitarian sector to ensure that aid is provided by means of environmentally sustainable practices. However, to what extent the current practices of humanitarian operations are impacting the environment is not well known as very little research has been conducted on environmental sustainability in this sector. As a step towards addressing this gap, this study takes on a mixed method approach to answer how to measure the environmental impacts and what they are. The sectors’ experience of practices on how to measure impacts are mapped out and a cradle-to- grave life cycle assessment in a humanitarian operation context is conducted. Studying one of the modular tools within response operations, Emergency Response Units (ERU) for water treatment, the study identifies and highlights the impact hotspots during the whole life cycle of one deployment. As a case study to carry this out, an ERU M40 from a Swedish Red Cross deployment in Uganda 2017 is reviewed. The study reveals hotspots in transportation of water distribution during the operational phase, international transport of the equipment and production of the material. It furthermore identifies challenges and opportunities of implementing such a tool in a new context in which only few similar studies have previously been conducted. Finally, this study contributes with recommendations based on empirical evidence for how an actor like the Swedish Red Cross can mitigate their environmental impacts by implementing a holistic life cycle approach and avoid causing unintended burdens. / Ökat extremväder orsakat av klimatförändringar och andra miljöpåverkan har som störst negativ effekt på redan utsatta människor. Det är befolkningar med minst resiliens mot katastrofer. Som en följd av detta uppstår en högre behov av humanitärt bistånd vilket förväntas ytterligare öka, på grund av antropogena utsläpp. Ett sådant växande behov möts av ett växande engagemang från humanitära sektorn för att säkerställa att stöd under dessa katastrofer ges genom miljömässigt hållbara metoder. I vilken utsträckning de nuvarande metoderna för humanitära insatser påverkar miljön är emellertid inte välkänt eftersom begränsad forskning har gjorts om hållbarhet utifrån ett miljöperspektiv i denna sektor. Som ett steg att minska den forskningsluckan använder denna studie en blandad metod för att svara på hur man mäter miljöpåverkan och vad den faktiska påverkan i dagsläget är. Erfarenheter inom humanitära sektorn av att applicera metoder för att mäta miljöpåverkan kartläggs och en vagga- till-graven livscykelanalys av en humanitärt insats genomförs. Studien utgår från ett modulärt verktyg inom humanitära instatser, ERU (Emergency Response Units) för vattenrening, och identifierar och belyser hotspots under livscykeln för en insats. Som en fallstudie för att genomföra detta har en ERU M40 från Svenska Röda korsets insats i Uganda 2017 använts. Studien påvisar hotspots för transport av vattendistribution under driftsfasen, internationell transport av modulen samt produktionen av materialet. Vidare identifieras utmaningar och möjligheter att implementera LCA i ett nytt sammanhang där endast ett fåtal liknande studier har genomförts tidigare. Slutligen bidrar denna studie med rekommendationer baserade på empiriska bevis för hur en aktör som Svenska Röda Korset kan minimera deras miljöpåverkan genom att implementera en holistisk livscykelperspektiv och undvika allokeringsproblem.

The Sand Wash Fault Zone (SWFZ) in the southern Uinta Basin is a significant extensional fault zone exhibiting complex deformation patterns. Our study integrates detailed structural analyses with a broader tectonic model to elucidate the tectonic evolution of the region. The SWFZ, extending over 34 km with a NW-SE strike, is underlain by an extensional decollement. Substantial deformation is observed in the upper layers, notably within the S2 sandstone of the Eocene Green River Formation. The deformation diminishes with depth, terminating at the oil-rich Mahogany oil shale zone, below which minimal deformation is observed. Our tectonic model, developed primarily through outcrop analysis utilizing Eocene-age outcrops, borehole breakouts, and dike and joint systems, highlights three key stages in the development of extensional fault zones related to the Uncompahgre Uplift within the Uinta Basin. Initially, eastward-directed contraction beginning during the late Cretaceous reactivates Precambrian oblique strike-slip faults, coinciding with the latest Uncompahgre Uplift event. Regional Laramide stress develops NW-SE joint patterns throughout the Uinta basin. Subsequently, reactivated Precambrian faulting leads to the formation of tight drape folds, with extensional stresses enhancing the regional Laramide stress regime deformation patterns along the axial plane of the drape folds. Finally, late Eocene orthogonal flexure results in extensional faulting along Precambrian faults. Maximum stress (σ1) of the SWFZ during its development was oriented vertically, while minimum stress (σ3) was perpendicular to the fault zone at approximately NE-SW, matching the trend of the Laramide stress regime. In the Devils River Uplift region, the Laramide stress regime resulted in the formation of 0.5m scale drape folds and anticlines, whose axes ultimately experienced orthogonal flexure, thereby resulting in the development of neutral-surface extensional features (Ferrell et al., 2022). Results from the regional tectonic model provide additional insights into stress orientations and timing, elucidating the role of reactivated Precambrian faults and orthogonal flexure in shaping the structural evolution of the southern Uinta Basin. Integration of these findings increases our understanding of fault zone development and serves as an analog for similar systems in the western USA.

Yes / Human rights to water and sanitation have been widely recognised in legal instruments at the international, regional, and national levels of governance. More awareness of states’ obligations has provided additional impetus to promote human rights in policy advocacy. The international non-governmental organisation WaterAid, as a non-state actor specialising in the water, sanitation, and hygiene services (WASH) sector, adopts a human rights-based approach (HRBA) to WASH programming. This paper draws on the experiences from WaterAid WASH projects in four countries – Nepal, Ghana, Mali, and Burkina Faso, to evaluate the practical impacts of the HRBA to ensure that governments fulfil their responsibility to realise universal access to water and sanitation services in different contexts. The outcomes highlight that three important contributions of the HRBA: (1) generates greater awareness among rightsholders and duty bearers about responsibilities and entitlements over safe drinking water and sanitation; (2) promotes constructive engagement between the government and rightsholders; and (3) equips people with the motivation, skills, and agency which are critical dimensions to work on sustainable WASH. The WASH sector should, therefore, embrace the power of human rights and invest in the specific activities and frameworks to integrate human rights into systems strengthening the WASH sector, while continuing to analyse and learn how to adapt and improve the approach in different contexts.

This project deploys a modified Water Poverty Index (WPI) in villages reconstructed after the 2004 tsunami in southeastern India. While previous measurements of access to water have advanced understandings of waterscape complexities, this modified WPI improves past efforts and deconstructs some of the previous misunderstandings and notions regarding access to water. The traditional WPI is multidimensional and seeks to measure water access in a holistic fashion; the WPI presented here employs this approach, but is adapted to include new place-based indicators (e.g., Secondary Sources). Furthermore, unlike previous iterations of the WPI, our modified index incorporates water quality testing, three weight schemes, and operates at several scales. Ultimately, the construction and arrangement of our modified WPI enables statistical analyses, geospatial analyses, and water poverty mapping -- which are absent in most prior studies-- while still remaining easy to populate and descriptively analyze among non-academicians. Statistical tests of original household level data from a total of 24 villages in Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu, and Karaikal District, Puducherry, indicate significant differences between the two districts in indicator scores as well as total WPI score. Additionally, the urban and rural areas within each district were found to be significantly different in level of water poverty, and trends were similar across the three weight schemes. Multiple linear regressions show correlation of independent socioeconomic variables (i.e., Income, Education, and Assets-Networks) with the dependent indicator of Capacity, but not with the other indicators or total WPI score. Global Moran's I tests indicate positive spatial autocorrelation, demonstrating that indicator and WPI scores tend to cluster in space. Overall, the results match what was anticipated, yet serve to challenge commonly held assumptions on urban-rural hierarchies and the role of socioeconomic variables in determining water poverty. The construction, deployment, and analytical potential of this modified WPI can be used by scholars to improve existing conceptualizations and measurements of access to water, while the results can be used by local governments and nonprofits to improve resource allocation and inform spatially-targeted interventions. / Master of Science / This study uses a modified, participant-based Water Poverty Index (WPI) to measure access to water among 24 reconstructed villages in Karaikal and Nagapattinam Districts in South India. While following the traditional WPI framework, this WPI modifies previous indicators and includes new indicators such as Secondary Sources, Quality, and Quantity. The modified WPI also supports statistical analyses as well as geospatial analyses and water poverty mapping. Further differentiation of this WPI is that it applies three separate weight schemes to interpret findings. The first weight scheme is the traditional application of equal weights; the second uses best management practices, the engineering and public health literatures, and grounded observations and fieldwork to develop an ‘expert’ weight scheme; and the third ‘survey’ weight scheme adheres to participants’ rankings in terms of which WPI indicators they perceive as most important when dealing with water issues. After indicator and WPI scores were calculated, independent sample t-tests, Wilcoxon Signed Rank tests, and stepwise multiple linear regressions were conducted on all scores. The tests were also conducted at several scales and across the three weight schemes. Results show that Karaikal District significantly outperformed Nagapattinam District, urban Karaikal significantly outperformed rural Karaikal, and rural Nagapattinam significantly outperformed urban Nagapattinam (which defies previous notions of urban-rural hierarchies). The regressions failed to return high R 2 values, indicating that factors such as income and education are not correlated with WPI scores. The results from this tool can be used to aid in interventions by local governments and nonprofits to improve overall resource management.

Raw vegetables can sometimes be the source of outbreaks of human illness; however the potential for fresh vegetables to serve as a vehicle for antibiotic -resistant bacteria is poorly understood. Antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria have been shown to persist in manure of animals administered antibiotics, and in compost generated from this manure, where there is the potential for their transfer to produce. The purpose of this study was to determine the survival of antibiotic-resistant bacteria on raw, peeled, carrots after washing with commonly used chemical sanitizers. Multi-drug resistant E. coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were inoculated into a compost slurry of composted manure from dairy cattle, with and without prior administration of antibiotics, and used to inoculate carrot surfaces prior to the washing studies. This approach provided defined model antibiotic-resistant pathogens present within a background microbial community simulating potential carry over from manure-derived fertilizer. Carrots (n=3, 25g) were air-dried and stored at 4 °C until washing with tap water, XY-12 (sodium hypochlorite, 50 ppm free chlorine) or Tsunami 100 (peroxyacetic acid/hydrogen peroxide, 40 ppm free paracetic acid), according to manufacturer's directions. A second batch of carrots representing each inoculation x wash condition (n=3) were individually packaged for storage at 2 °C for 1,7, and 14 days, or 10 °C for 7 days and enumerated on those day intervals to recover bacteria from the surfaces of washed carrots. The resulting previously washed and stored carrots were subject to serial dilution and plated onto corresponding agar to enumerate total aerobic bacteria (R2A), aerobic bacteria tolerant or resistant to antibiotics (antibiotic-supplemented R2A), E. coli (Eosin Methylene Blue), and Pseudomonas spp. (Pseudomonas Isolation Agar). In addition, the tetA gene was quantified from the carrot samples as a measure of the effect of sanitizers and storage on an antibiotic resistance gene known to be carried by the inoculated bacteria.Inclusion of sanitizer in the wash water significantly reduced the absolute numbers of inoculated bacteria (E.coli and Pseudomonas) as well as populations of bacteria capable of growth on the R2A media containing cefotaxime (10μg/mL), sulfamethoxazole (100μg/mL), or tetracycline (3μg/mL). Comparable reductions in the inoculated P. aeruginosa resistant to tetracycline (PIA T, 4μg/mL), bacteria resistant to cefotaxime (10μg/mL) and tetracycline (3μg/mL) occurred after washing with XY-12 or Tsunami 100. The sanitizer effectiveness may be bacterial dependent, as evident by larger absolute reductions of the inoculated E. coli (EMB) and bacteria grown on sulfamethoxazole (100μg/mL)-amended plates after washing with Tsunami 100 compared to washing with tap water or XY-12. Re-growth of both the inoculated and native compost-associated bacteria was inhibited by storage at 2 °C, as there were no significant differences in the log CFU/g values on the various media (total aerobic bacteria, bacteria on antibiotic-amended plates, E. coli inoculum, P. aeruginosa inoculum) during the 14-day storage period. However, temperature abuse at 10 °C resulted in significant re-growth of native Pseudomonas, compared to storage at 2 °C. A sanitizer-associated interaction between re-growth and temperature was also observed for bacteria resistant to clindamycin (25μg/mL) and cefotaxime (10μg/mL), with substantial re-growth occurring only on carrots washed with Tsunami 100. There was no significant re-growth of the inoculated E. coli O157:H7 at either temperature. Results indicate that some bacterial populations are reduced by post-harvest washes and that temperature abuse of fresh produce may result in increases in antibiotic-resistant bacterial populations. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Fresh vegetables are frequently washed to remove soil and pests before shipment to suppliers, with the goal of creating a ready-to-eat- product for consumers. The inclusion of a chemical sanitizer in the wash water has the benefit of killing or reducing the number of bacteria in the wash water. Chemical sanitizers also have the potential to reduce spoilage bacteria and human pathogenic bacteria on the vegetable and prevent cross-contamination from one vegetable to another. While the intention of sanitizers is to reduce bacterial numbers in wash water, there can be added benefit of also reducing bacterial numbers on vegetable surfaces. Given the rising problem of antibiotic resistance, in this study we sought to determine the effectiveness of two commonly used wash water sanitizers for reducing antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens and other antibiotic-resistant bacteria on carrots. It was not possible to completely eliminate all bacteria on the carrots by washing, a frequent misconception. However, washing in water that included a food-grade sanitizer, Tsunami 100 (peroxyacetic acid/hydrogen peroxide) or XY-12 (sodium hypochlorite), numbers of <i>E.coli</i> and <i>Pseudomonas</i> that had been pre-inoculated on the carrots were reduced. Despite the reduction in numbers after washing, the surviving bacteria on the carrot surfaces grew significantly when stored improperly at warm temperatures (10°C instead of 2 °C). Bacteria that could grow in the presence of antibiotics were reduced by the sanitizer wash and did not re-grow when stored at 2qC. The use of food-grade sanitizers does reduce the numbers of some bacteria on carrots, but it is equally important that consumers store produce at chilled temperatures to prevent re-growth of potentially harmful bacteria.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第24986号 / 地環博第247号 / 新制||地環||49(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎環境マネジメント専攻 / (主査)教授 越後 信哉, 准教授 田中 周平, 教授 藤原 拓, 准教授 原田 英典 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

Les Objectifs de Développement Durable visent d'ici 2030 un « accès pour tous à des services d'assainissement et d'hygiène adéquats, en mettant fin à la défécation à l'air libre ». Un service d'assainissement peut-être défini par ses composantes techniques et sociales, et leurs interactions. Dans l'optique de proposer des pistes d'améliorations des services d'assainissement en zone tropicale, les travaux de cette thèse ont porté à la fois sur des infrastructures de traitement et sur l'implication de l'ensemble des acteurs dans la définition du service. L'analyse croisée des contextes des départements d'outre-mer (DOM) français et du Sénégal a permis d'identifier des contraintes qui pèsent sur le secteur de l'assainissement en zone tropicale. Du point de vue des infrastructures de traitement, ces contraintes nous ont amenées à proposer des procédés issus de la famille des Filtres Plantés de Végétaux (FPV) comme solutions à priori pertinentes. Cette thèse présente leurs adaptations à la zone tropicale, en détaillant les choix retenus pour le dimensionnement, la conception des filtres et le choix des végétaux. Une centaine de campagnes de suivi ont été réalisées sur 7 stations pilotes en tailles réelles, à travers les 5 DOM. Les résultats montrent que malgré une plus grande compacité, le dimensionnement proposé permet de conserver des niveaux de traitement au moins comparables à ceux observés en climat tempéré. Compte tenu des contraintes climatiques et organisationnelles en milieu tropical, une analyse de leur résilience à des perturbations et de leur fiabilité de traitement a été réalisée par une étude statistique sur les données produites par l'autosurveillance réglementaire. Elle montre que les FPV sont également plus fiables que les procédés de traitement conventionnel les plus répandus pour les petites collectivités. Ce qui s'explique à la fois par la barrière physique que représente ces procédés de cultures fixées sur support fin ainsi que par des besoins en entretien plus réduits. Le deuxième axe de recherche part du constat d'un manque de concertation entre acteurs au moment de la planification de l'assainissement, étape qui préside à la construction du système d'assainissement. En particulier, les utilisateurs, leurs besoins et leurs contraintes sont très peu et mal pris en compte. La modélisation d'accompagnement pourrait permettre de créer à la fois un support (le modèle) permettant de discuter des choix techniques et de leurs conséquences, ainsi que le cadre dans lequel les différents acteurs pourraient échanger leurs points de vue et trouver un consensus soutenable. Un processus de modélisation d'accompagnement a été conçu et mis en place sur la planification de l'assainissement dans 2 zones (urbaine et rurale) du Sénégal. Il nécessitait, pour proposer des scénarios viables, d'intégrer une part non négligeable de connaissances expertes. Centré sur les populations, ce processus a permis la création d'un premier modèle générique sur l'accès à l'assainissement qui prend la forme d'un jeu de rôle. La pertinence de tels outils dans la caractérisation des besoins des usagers a été évaluée. Par ailleurs, l'attention a été portée sur l'acceptation par les usagers du service proposé et sa traduction en volonté de contribution / Sustainable Develoment Goals aim by 2030, to « achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation », by « using safely managed sanitation services ». Sanitation service can be defined by its technical and social components, and their interactions. This thesis focuses on both treatment infrastructures and involvement of all the stakeholders into service definition. Cross analysis of French Overseas Territories (FOT) and Senegal contexts, has identified common constraints that weigh on sanitation sector in tropical areas. From treatment infrastructure point of view, these constraints lead to suggest treatment wetlands systems and particularly French vertical-flow treatment wetland (FS-VFTW) to easier sludge managment, as a relevant solution. Their adaptation for tropical climate is the subjet of the first axis of our work. It aimed at defining their adaptation in terms of design, plant choices and defining the treatment wetlands type to implement according to outlet requirements. A hundred of 24h sampling campains were performed on 7 full scale demonstration plants, accross the 5 FOTs. Results show that despite more compacity, the proposed design allows maintaining performances at least similar to those observed in temperate climate. Due to climatic and organizational constraints inn tropical climate, a statistical analysis has been done to point out the resilience and reliability of the systems based on regulatory selfmonitoring data. It highlights the fact that FS-VFTWs are more reliable than most of the conventional treatment processes when applied for small size communities. Their physical barrier (filter) and their lower maintenance requirement explain this observation. The second axis of our research is based on an observed lack of consultation between stakeholders during the sanitation planning phase, which is responsible for the construction of the sanitation system. In particular, the users, their needs and their constraints are poorly and badly taken into account. Companion modeling approach could create both a support (the model) for discussing technical choices, as well as the framework within which the stakeholders could exchange points of view and find a sustainable consensus. Such a process has been developed and implemented for sanitation planning in 2 areas (urban and rural) of Senegal. Focused on household population, this process has led to create a generic model for sanitation access, embodied as a role playing game, which include a significant part of expert knowledge. The relevance of such tools in the characterization of user needs has been evaluated. In addition, attention was paid to users' acceptance of the proposed service and its translation into a willingness to contribute

This work studied the production of aerosol-phase organic nitrates in both Portland and the Columbia River Gorge (CRG). Ozone and NOx species were investigated for correlation with organic nitrate aerosol, as they function as precursors to the production of organic nitrates. These ambient gas-phase measurements were collected in the same locations as high-volume (Hi-Vol) filters samples, in an urban and rural gorge setting to investigate correlations at the origin of the pollution plume and downwind. A novel Soxhlet extraction method for Hi-Vol filters was developed based on literature and EPA standard methods. Analysis for nitrate production was done by segregating data based on times when the wind blew out of Portland and down the CRG versus times when flow was not westerly. Filters were then compared to ambient gas-phase measurements and derived NO3 radical production rates to look for trends. Wind direction had a strong influence on the concentrations of precursor molecules in the CRG. On days with a westerly wind direction into the gorge, concentrations of the measure aerosol organic nitrates were similar at both sides. This suggests some contribution of a broader regional production of organic nitrates. There was some correlation between the production rate of NO3 radicals and the measured organic nitrate aerosol, suggesting a role for NO3 + VOC production of organic nitrates that later partition to the aerosol phase. This information will better illuminate the fate of nitrogen downwind of pollution sources. The information will also help to create a better understanding of the way topography and meteorological conditions can influence the flow of pollution. Understanding the downwind oxidative chemistry that happens in the CRG would better support both pollution prevention and mitigation efforts.

In the restoration of tidal wetland ecosystems, potential drivers of plant community development range from biotic controls (e.g. plant competition, seed dispersal) to abiotic controls (e.g. tidal flooding, salinity levels). How these controls influence the success of tidal wetland restoration are only partly understood, but have important implications for wetland habitat recovery. Specifically, the extent to which the existing native and non-native seed banks in tidally reconnected wetlands interact with these controls is not clear, yet the potential success of passive restoration methods depends upon this understanding. For a 54-year chronosequence of eleven tidal wetland restoration sites in the Lower Columbia River of western Oregon, USA, it was hypothesized that native plant species and soil properties would show trends approaching reference levels within 3 to 20 years post-restoration and that lower elevation wetland areas within restored sites would exhibit a greater native species abundance and similarity to reference sites, compared with restored high elevation wetland areas. Results indicated that plant species richness, soil organic matter, bulk density, pH, and salinity conditions among the restoration sites reached reference wetland ranges within 3-6 years post-tidal reconnection. The mid-low marsh elevation zones (<2.5 m) recovered native plant cover within 3-6 years post-tidal reconnection, while high marsh elevation zones (>2.5 m) remained dominated by nonnative species Phalaris arundinacea and Juncus effusus subsp. effusus. To investigate the mechanisms driving these non-native plant invasions, it was ii hypothesized that native and non-native wetland plant community distributions would be reflective both of their abundance in the seed bank and of their germination tolerance to wetland tidal flooding and salinity conditions. Using a factorial study design of three tidal conditions by three salinity levels, these hypotheses were tested in the greenhouse. Overall, non-native seeds were found to significantly outnumber native seeds in both seed banks. In the greenhouse, P. arundinacea and J. effusus were found to germinate more readily out of the seed bank under freshwater high-marsh flooding (1 hour a day) treatments as compared to oligohaline (3 ppt) mid-low marsh flooding (3-6 hours twice a day) treatments and to brackish salinity (10 ppt) treatments. Dominant native wetland species, Carex lyngbyei and Schoenoplectus lacustris, germination were not found to vary significantly among the treatments (p > 0.10). These results indicate that the salinity and flooding gradients within these restored marshes suppress germination of the non-native species in the low-mid marsh but not in the high marsh, where they are likely able to outcompete the native species due to their dominance in the seed bank. The implications of these results for passive tidal wetland restoration efforts are that both seed bank composition and species-specific tolerances to restored tidal flooding and salinity gradients are key mechanisms driving native and nonnative plant community development and resilience.