Thesis (M.Dev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2011 / The legacy of apartheid has left the Democratic South African government with many challenges. Sixteen years of governance have not been enough for the state to close the gap between the rich and the poor. Instead, the gap is widening day by day. The Black Economic Empowerment (BEE), the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) and other government intervention strategies have not done enough to uplift the standard of living of the majority of people in the country. The poor, living in rural areas, remain the most hard-hit and recipients of the bitter fruits of the past. Little or no development has been taking place in their communities. Regardless of the many efforts by the current government, water supply and sanitation in rural areas are a nightmare. The study was conducted in two rural villages in Bushbuckridge Local Municipality (BLM), namely, Clare B and Islington. In some parts of the villages residents have never fetched water in their streets less than one kilometre for close to a year. The results show that villagers are negatively affected by the lack of water in their communities. The economic power of these communities is very low, most of them are living below the poverty line. The results suggest, as elsewhere, that the BLM should install water pipes that will transfer water from the Injaka Dam to all rural areas in the municipality, as the two villages under study are not the only ones experiencing water shortages in the area.

Although most of the earth is covered in water, a very limited amount of that water is fresh water, which is essential to our survival. Therefore, it is imperative that we do all that is possible to conserve and protect our extremely limited water resources, especially in arid regions such as the American West. While there are many ways and means to protecting and preserving our water resources, this thesis focuses on the strategy of rainwater harvesting (RWH) as it is done throughout the state of Utah. RWH is defined as taking the precipitation that falls on our built structures and putting it to good use when it would often otherwise end up in gutters, pipes, and storm drains to be processed and/or disposed of at a distant location. RWH systems consist of several different components including a catchment area (usually, but not always, a rooftop), gutters, a place for storage, and some way of future dispersal and use of the collected water. There are numerous documented benefits to RWH. Historically, RWH has not been allowed in states—such as Utah—that follow the doctrine of prior appropriation, which strongly defends the case for water rights and affirms that senior water rights should not be infringed upon. According to the law, when someone practiced RWH they were infringing on the water rights of others. However, in 2010, the Utah State Legislature modified these long-standing laws to allow residents of Utah to legally harvest up to 2,500 gallons at a time without fear of infringement on others’ water rights. Since then, many Utahans have adopted RWH. However, the number of Utah residents who are practicing RWH is still a tiny percentage of the entire Utah population. This research included surveying self-identified rainwater harvesters throughout Utah and sought to discover and understand their motivations for adopting the practice. This information has the potential to assist planners, water districts, water managers, cities, state agencies, and legislators in persuading others throughout the state to also adopt the practice. It was found that an emergency supply of water and concern for the environment are the most important motivators for Utah rainwater harvesters. Unsurprisingly, financial savings also had a significant influence on harvesters and their decision to practice RWH, although they spent considerably less on their RWH systems than is typically spent in other states and countries. A secondary aspect of the research was to examine Utah State Senate Bill 32, the current law in Utah concerning RWH. It was found that the current laws are written in a restrictive manner and should be changed and adjusted in order for a greater percentage of the Utah population to be motivated to adopt RWH.

In the Philippines, about 38 per cent of the total population resides in rural areas where poverty remains a significant problem, especially in remote upland communities. Soil erosion has been a well-recognised problem in these areas, resulting in a number of impacts on the livelihoods of the rural poor. The development and dissemination of soil and water resource conservation (SWC) techniques has been seen as essential to achieving improved and lasting outcomes for the livelihoods of upland communities, with benefits spilling over beyond the farm boundary. The participatory development of a cost-effective means of controlling soil erosion, natural vegetative strips (NVS), has increased the adoptability of SWC for many upland households, enabling them to incorporate agroforestry and other practices in their farming systems. The Landcare Program in the southern Philippines has facilitated the adoption of these practices over the past decade. However, the impacts of adoption on the livelihoods of farming households, and the externalities that adoption may deliver, have remained speculative. This thesis first explores whether the adoption of Landcare practices has resulted in improved livelihood outcomes for upland farming families. Second, it analyses the potential for the piecemeal adoption of these measures to deliver tangible benefits at the watershed scale. Finally, using a benefit-cost approach, these outcomes are compared to the costs of the research and extension projects that have helped achieve them. The analysis is carried out in two upland municipalities, San Isidro and Pilar, in the Province of Bohol. Landcare households in Bohol dedicate a large percentage of household resources to the production of rainfed rice, which is the primary source of subsistence for adopting households while upland plots play a secondary role. The adoption of NVS alone did not typically generate significant economic benefits, yet created the stable platform on which more commercial investments were being made, especially through NVS enrichment. In San Isidro, the average annual income of adopters generated from upland activities was estimated to be more than double that of non-adopters, with a difference of over PHP 7,500. In Pilar, the net impacts of adoption were estimated to be only around PHP 3,700, given that many households had not enriched their NVS at the time of the survey. At the household level, the benefits of adoption are therefore contingent on the ability of the household to make further investments in their farming system, stemming from improved soil stability. Several case studies were used to describe the process of and constraints to farm development. The average impacts on incomes were found to be significant at the household level, with the potential to lift a household above the poverty threshold. Yet the marginal nature of the upland farming systems limits the aggregate on-site benefits. The expansion of activities into Pilar and Alicia was estimated to increase the net annual benefits, reaching PHP 2,270,000 (around AUD 60,000) per year by 2009. In absolute terms, this impact is still quite modest, but needs to be considered together with the off-site impacts and the costs of the Landcare Program. In Pilar, one of the clearest impacts of erosion due (in part) to upland cropping has been the sedimentation of the Malinao Dam. The significance and distribution of forgone revenue from irrigated rice as a result of sedimentation is largely determined by factors including the timing of rainfall events, the allocation of water between users, and the value of alternative land uses. Furthermore, the upland agricultural landscapes of Bohol are diverse and complex, with numerous sources and filters of sediment. A terrain analysis model was used to model the impact of incremental adoption of Landcare practices within the landscape. The results show that the spatial distribution of adoption is likely to be as important as the extent of adoption when it comes to delivering off-site benefits. The aggregate level of losses avoided as a result of Landcare was estimated to be around PHP 1,023,000 (AUD 26,900) over a 20-year period at a discount rate of five per cent. The results of the livelihood analysis and watershed modelling were combined in a benefit-cost analysis (BCA) and compared to the costs of the projects and other investments that have helped bring about the impacts. The results showed a positive but small NPV of around PHP 3.5 million, equating to around AUD 91,000, for the 20 year period simulated, using a 5 per cent discount rate. The sunk costs of the early phases of theLandcare Program, however, continue to provide the basis for ongoing livelihood projects that utilise farmer groups as a means of extension. Furthermore, when the expansion of the Program into other nearby municipalities can draw on the original research or learning hub, rapid adoption can be achieved at relatively low cost and provide a significant return on investment. Overall, the evidence presented indicates that the net economic impacts of the Landcare Program in Bohol are positive, even when taking into account the prior investment in research and training. The major beneficiaries of the Program are the individual households who adopt the conservation farming practices, with these benefits largely generated by the farming opportunities stemming from improved soil stability. The diversification and commercialisation of the upland component of the farming system has mainly utilised land and labour at low opportunity cost, though limited access to these resources prevents some households from proceeding along the identified farm development pathway. The focus on livelihood development does not deny the seriousness of downstream watershed problems arising from upland agriculture. However, it is agued that given the relativity of on-site and off-site benefits, the focus and primary justification of the Landcare Program should remain on improving the productivity and livelihoods of upland farmers through facilitated, farmer-led, group-based research and extension, with these downstream impacts being seen as side benefits of what is essentially a livelihoods program.

This thesis examines whether or not differences in people’s water conservation attitudes, political party orientation, severity of drought, and attention to drought news affect their engagement in water conservation behavior during a time of continued water shortage. Previously, it has been found that attitudes are predictive of intentions that relate to behaviors (e.g., Dietz et al. 2005). Democrats have been shown to be more pro-environmental then Republicans (e.g., Dunlap et al. 2000). It has also been found that severity of drought is positively related with environmental concern (e.g., Accury and Christianson 1990), and access to news information is directly related to willingness to take action (e.g., Johnson and Scicchitano 2000). However, during a time of drought, what is the relationship between individual water conservation attitudes and behaviors? Do conventional understandings of political party orientation and water conservation behaviors hold during a time of drought? Do those living in counties that experience more severe drought engage in more water conservation behaviors? Do those who pay more attention to drought news engage in more water conservation behaviors? Using data from Georgia’s 2007 Peach State Poll, I explore the answers to these questions. I examine how water conservation attitudes (Model 1), political party orientation (Model 2), drought severity (Model 3), attention to drought news (Model 4), sociodemographics, controls, and other factors from models 1-4 (Model 5) influenced water conservation behavior during the 2007 Georgia drought. Results indicate that differences in people’s water conservation attitudes, political party orientation, drought severity, and attention to drought news did not significantly affect their water conservation behavior during the 2007 drought. However, race, class, and gender variables in the full model did have a significant effect, which seems to suggest that one’s location in the social stratification system affects their opportunities to engage in water conservation behavior. Therefore, environmental policy issues should not be considered apart from social issues. The fundamental theoretical significance of the following research is that we affect and are in turn affected by the biophysical world in a dialectic fashion. Recognizing the quality, quantity, and interrelatedness of nature-society relationships is essential for future research.

Water conservation is one of the important policy concerns. However, most water conservation practices have focused primarily on reducing use by customers. Since a large amount of water lost in supply systems causes water providers to lose money, resources, and reliability, and the current passive approach cannot deal with water losses effectively, a proactive approach is necessary for water-loss management. The goal of this study is to help policymakers and water utilities develop strategies that proactively solve water losses. To develop strategies for water-loss management, it is essential to identify key factors that determine the level of water losses as well as the factors that encourage the adoption of the innovative control practices. Using three different datasets and statistical methodology, this study analyzed the factors associated with water losses and utilities responses to the problems. Based on case studies, this study explored managers perceptions about the adoption of water-loss management and identified organizational characteristics that may influence managements decisions to adopt such strategies. Operational and Maintenance (O and M) factors had the most significant impacts on water losses. In particular, system size, represented by total production or population served, and infrastructure rehabilitation were crucial factors. The effects of some internal factors on water losses were predicted but those of several internal factors were rather unclear and relatively complicated. This study confirmed that utilities were more likely to be motivated to combat water losses if certain external conditions, such as higher water demand, limited resource availability, and institutional pressure exist. This study found several internal and external factors associated with the adoption of proactive water-loss management; however, internal factors seemed to dominate in the decision-making processes over such adoption. The utilities that have already adopted proactive water-loss management seem to be more amenable to adopt new practices because they have certain characteristics and their managers have more positive perspectives. The findings suggest several policy implications and recommendations for the water industry. Finally, this study discussed limitations of the study, and suggestions for further studies.

This thesis examines whether or not differences in people’s water conservation attitudes, political party orientation, severity of drought, and attention to drought news affect their engagement in water conservation behavior during a time of continued water shortage. Previously, it has been found that attitudes are predictive of intentions that relate to behaviors (e.g., Dietz et al. 2005). Democrats have been shown to be more pro-environmental then Republicans (e.g., Dunlap et al. 2000). It has also been found that severity of drought is positively related with environmental concern (e.g., Accury and Christianson 1990), and access to news information is directly related to willingness to take action (e.g., Johnson and Scicchitano 2000). However, during a time of drought, what is the relationship between individual water conservation attitudes and behaviors? Do conventional understandings of political party orientation and water conservation behaviors hold during a time of drought? Do those living in counties that experience more severe drought engage in more water conservation behaviors? Do those who pay more attention to drought news engage in more water conservation behaviors? Using data from Georgia’s 2007 Peach State Poll, I explore the answers to these questions. I examine how water conservation attitudes (Model 1), political party orientation (Model 2), drought severity (Model 3), attention to drought news (Model 4), sociodemographics, controls, and other factors from models 1-4 (Model 5) influenced water conservation behavior during the 2007 Georgia drought. Results indicate that differences in people’s water conservation attitudes, political party orientation, drought severity, and attention to drought news did not significantly affect their water conservation behavior during the 2007 drought. However, race, class, and gender variables in the full model did have a significant effect, which seems to suggest that one’s location in the social stratification system affects their opportunities to engage in water conservation behavior. Therefore, environmental policy issues should not be considered apart from social issues. The fundamental theoretical significance of the following research is that we affect and are in turn affected by the biophysical world in a dialectic fashion. Recognizing the quality, quantity, and interrelatedness of nature-society relationships is essential for future research.

The City of Tampa, Florida has instituted water restrictions over the past decade that have been primarily aimed at mitigating non-essential usage of water resources by limiting domestic lawn irrigation. The mandatory restrictions are enforced by the issuance of citations to violators, which is intended to promote compliance and deter from subsequent violations. This thesis provides a thorough investigation of historical water restriction with relation to compliance in order to determine which factors might be related to high rates of water usage within key Tampa communities. The objectives are to: (1) develop a GIS data set that can be used to quantitatively map and analyze domestic water usage at the parcel level; (2) examine the relationships between domestic water usage and key environmental and recreational factors, such as rainfall, seasonality, and usage of swimming pools; and (3) map the enforcement of residential lawn irrigation policy non-compliance to determine spatial relationships within the communities and test the effectiveness of current enforcement practices. The key factor that provided the most significant relationship to water usage within the communities was the amount of average monthly rainfall, with each community's water consumption having a significant negative correlation with precipitation. Water usage increased in each examined community after transitioning to more stringent water usage restrictions, with cited restriction violators increasing usage to a greater magnitude than their uncited counterparts. This may primarily be attributed to contradictions between local policy and community binding directives.

This dissertation develops, tests and validates statistical methods for verifying the amount of water conserved as a result of investments in precision leveling, other on-farm conservation measures in place, weather variation and farmer behavior. This evaluation uses a sample of 328 unique fields from Lakeside Irrigation Division in Texas over a six-year period, totaling 966 observations. Results show that precision leveling accounts for a 0.30 acre-feet reduction of irrigation water per acre leveled. This Mixed-Level Model (MLM) estimate for precision leveling water savings is more precise than the estimates either from an Ordinary Least Square Model or a Fixed Effect Model. A meta analysis combines the results from this model with other similar studies. Although the mean estimate of the meta-analysis is similar to the MLM estimate, the meta-analysis further reduces the standard error of the mean precision leveling estimate by 2 percent. A better approximation of the acre-feet water savings per acre farmed translates into less uncertainty for water regulators, managers and policymakers regarding the volume of conserved water that is available for transfer. / text

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

In arid lands, wetland loss is the result not only of the scarcity of water itself, but of the management of water to maximize off-stream uses. Declaring a wetland as a protected natural area is not enough when its water supply is not protected as well. In a fully-diverted, over-allocated, drought-prone Colorado River ecosystem, its delta has no instream flows allocated. Water use efficiency (WUE) is touted as the panacea for water shortages and lack of instream flows. I evaluated the relationships between water use in the Mexicali Irrigation District and the water supply for the Colorado River delta wetlands. The survey applied to 521 farmers complemented the GIS analysis to create a spatial distribution of agronomic and socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ options to improve WUE in irrigation. Mexicali farmers apply 10,496 m³/ha/yr; 4% higher than the legal allotment. Still, 28% of the district’s soils are salt-affected (ECe > 8dS/m), 19% are sodic (ESP > 50%), and 39% of the salt load in irrigation water accumulates in the soils. Thus, Mexicali farmers apply more water than plants need in order to maintain the sustainability of their soils. From an agronomic perspective, increasing WUE is feasible in 80% of the valley. However, high costs and lack of technical knowledge limit farmers’ options to either continue using as much water as they do now or rent/sell their water rights to larger farming operations or urban developments. Mexicali’s agriculture provides 87 Mm³ of water to the delta marshes, and seepage from unlined canals and subsurface flows generated by irrigation contribute to sustain riparian areas. Agricultural “inefficiencies” become the main source of water for wetlands when flows are fully diverted. The Irrigation District 014 is an integral part of the delta ecosystem; this is a required change in the agriculture-wetland paradigm. The restoration of arid and over-allocated rivers requires the integration of irrigation practices and WUE with the allocation of water for instream flows. The restoration of wetlands of international watersheds like the Colorado River requires the bi-national collaboration beyond memorandums of understanding between the countries; treaties where environmental flows are actually allocated will better serve shared ecosystems.