M. Tech. Water care / Free-living amoebae are important predators that feed on bacteria, fungi and algae by phagocytosis. However, a number of bacteria have become resistant to, and are able to survive, grow and exit Free-living amoebae. Free-living amoebae are ubiquitous organisms that have been isolated from various man-made and environmental water systems. Some of these free-living amoebae host amoeba-resistant bacteria such as Legionella spp. Vibrio cholerae and Mycobacterium species which are regarded as human pathogens. The objective of this study was to establish amoebal enrichment and co-culture techniques in order to isolate and identify amoebae and amoeba-resistant bacteria from seeded and environmental water samples. The aim of the study was to introduce and establish amoebal co-culture and amoebal enrichment techniques in South Africa, to provides South African laboratories with baseline information on the efficiency of culture-based methods as well as analytical requirements like incubation temperature, media preparation and storage conditions for amoebal enrichment and co-culture techniques for the detection and isolation of amoebae and amoeba-resistant bacteria from environmental water systems.

Access to clean and safe drinking water is a fundamental human requirement. However, in many areas of the world natural water sources have been impacted by a variety of biological and chemical contaminants. The ingestion of these contaminants may cause acute or chronic health problems. To prevent such illnesses, many technologies have been developed to treat, disinfect and supply safe drinking water quality. However, despite these advancements, water supply distribution systems can adversely affect the drinking water quality before it is delivered to consumers. The primary aim of this research was to investigate the effect that water distribution systems may have on household drinking water quality in Christchurch, New Zealand and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Water samples were collected from the source water and household taps in both cities. The samples were then tested for various physical, chemical and biological water quality parameters. The data collected was also used to determine if water samples complied with national drinking water quality standards in both countries. Independent samples t-test statistical analyses were also performed to determine if water quality measured in the samples collected from the source and household taps was significantly different. Water quality did not vary considerably between the source and tap water samples collected in Christchurch City. No bacteria were detected in any sample. However, the pH and total iron concentrations measured in source and tap water samples were found to be significantly different. The lower pH values measured in tap water samples suggests that corrosion may be taking place in the distribution system. No water samples transgressed the Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand (DWSNZ) MAVs. Monitoring data collected by the Christchurch City Council (CCC) was also used for comparison. A number of pH, turbidity and total iron concentration measurements collected by the CCC in 2011 were found to exceed the guideline values. This is likely due to structural damage to the source wells and pump-stations that occurred during the 2011 earthquake events. Overall, it was concluded that the distribution system does not adversely affect the quality of Christchurch City’s household drinking water. The water quality measured in samples collected from the source (LTP) and household taps in Addis Ababa was found to vary considerably. The water collected from the source complied with the Ethiopian (WHO) drinking water quality standards. However, tap water samples were often found to have degraded water quality for the physical and chemical parameters tested. This was especially the case after supply interruption and reinstatement events. Bacteria were also often detected in household tap water samples. The results from this study indicate that water supply disruptions may result in degraded water quality. This may be due to a drop in pipeline pressure and the intrusion of contaminants through the leaky and cross-connected pipes in the distribution network. This adversely affects the drinking water quality in Addis Ababa.

Issues affecting water quality are seen as one of the most important and pressing global problems of our era. In New Zealand, water bodies with the poorest water quality and ecological condition tend to be surrounded by pastoral land use. Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora in Canterbury, New Zealand, is a typical example of the issues that nutrient and sediment run-off from pastoral land can create. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between sediment concentrations, phosphate concentrations, ecological state and the degree of riparian restoration on drains that flowed into Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora, and to calculate the load of phosphorus and sediment delivered by each of the drains to Te Waihora over the year, comparing this to the loads carried by larger, natural streams and rivers. Little research has been done on these small artificial tributaries of the Lake Ellesmere/Te Waihora catchment. Data collection was carried out on 10 drains with variable degrees of riparian planting, monthly in summer and autumn, and fortnightly in winter and spring, due to higher variability in drain flows during this time. Sites 1, 2 had low dissolved oxygen (DO) and high total phosphorus (TP), lack of flow and extremely high conductivity, and (with) Site 5, higher suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentrations. All these factors are consistent with the lack of ecology occurring in these drains. All drains failed to meet the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) guidelines for TP concentrations. All water chemistry parameters showed significant differences between seasons except conductivity. Mean water temperatures and pH were higher in summer and lower in winter, while mean DO levels were higher in winter (and spring) and lower in summer (and autumn). Macroinvertebrate analyses indicated moderate to severe pollution in all the drains, despite the amount of riparian planting present and the presence of macroinvertebrate community structure was related mainly to substrate size. The degree and type of riparian planting present on the drains studied did not appear to affect TP, SPM, macroinvertebrates or general water quality. This is likely to be due to the fact that little of the riparian planting had been specifically planted for restoration purposes. The highest loads of TP and SPM occurred in winter and spring, and in the larger (wider and deeper) drains. As flow increased in the drain, so did the load of phosphorus and sediment carried. Comparison with Environment Canterbury monitoring data for the river tributaries of the lake indicated that more TP and SPM is carried to the lake by natural rivers and streams, than by the drains, but the latter do make a significant contribution. The percentage of TP that is in dissolved form was higher than had previously been assumed, in both the drains and the larger, natural rivers and streams. It is recommended that future restoration work aim to reduce the amount of phosphorus and sediment entering the larger drains in winter and spring. More adequate riparian planting needs to occur on these drains, and it needs to be managed in a way that a reduction in dissolved phosphorus levels is also achieved.

Drainage area is a measure of the number of acres feeding into a creek. Drainage area threshold is the amount of acreage required for the creek to be included on a map. Watersheds mapped according to higher drainage area thresholds will show creek systems that are shorter and concentrated at the bottom of the watershed. Watersheds mapped according to lower drainage area thresholds show creek systems that are longer and extend further up the watershed. Since all watersheds are subject to different land uses, soil types, geology, etc., they should be mapped according to different drainage area thresholds. Headwaters are where creeks begin. There is empirical evidence that properly functioning headwaters significantly reduce erosion, improve water quality, slow stormwater flows, and provide habitat. If municipalities use lower drainage area thresholds to define their creeks, they can include more headwaters in their creek setback requirements. This professional report identifies the Harris Branch watershed as being under relatively more pressure to develop and exhibiting more environmental risk than other watersheds in Austin, Texas’ Desired Development Zone. Creeks in the watershed are redrawn according to reduced drainage area thresholds using a simple ArcGIS analysis. The analysis reveals a critical mass where creek setbacks appear to be too extensive. If creeks with a drainage area of 5 acres are protected by development code, the setbacks created have excessive branching that could be too restrictive for development. A critical mass ratio should be considered when determining which drainage area threshold is most appropriate for a watershed. The critical mass ratio is equal to the number of branches allowed per a specified distance of creek centerline. The process of identifying this critical mass ratio can help growing cities find a balance between the need to encourage development in designated areas and the need to protect natural creek systems everywhere. I recommend that municipalities review the effects of reducing drainage area threshold for each watershed, and then identify the drainage area threshold that, when protected by setback requirements, allows for extended and connected greenways as well as an increase in density. / text

The focus of this work was to develop a general methodology for modeling water quality in coastal waterbodies. The methods were developed in the context of modeling bacterial total maximum daily loads (TMDLs), but the general approach is applicable to a wide variety of pollutants. The study area for this dissertation was the Copano Bay watershed, which is located on the Texas Gulf Coast. The developed approach combines simple modeling techniques, of the type recommended by state and national advisory groups, in a GIS (geographic information system) framework, resulting in a methodical, easily transferred approach. This work addresses coastal systems where water quality is a function of operations in non-tidal rivers, tidal rivers, and bays, combined with the effects of watershed contributions. An uncertainty analysis was done to quantify a subset of the variance in the modeled results. Outcomes from this work include modeling tools, a documented workflow for modeling water quality in coastal watersheds, procedures to quantify the uncertainty associated with the developed approach, insight to the factors affecting water quality in the study area, and mean annual bacterial TMDLs for the impaired waterbodies of the Copano Bay watershed. / text

published_or_final_version / Botany / Master / Master of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Urban Planning and Environmental Management / Master / Master of Philosophy

Η υποβάθμιση της ποιότητας των υδάτων στην Ευρώπη οδήγησε στην έκδοση της Οδηγίας Πλαίσιο για τα Ύδατα 2000/60/ΕE, σύμφωνα με την οποία τα επιφανειακά ύδατα πρέπει να βρίσκονται σε «καλή οικολογική κατάσταση» έως το 2015. Τα υδρόβια μακρόφυτα αποτελούν ένα από τα τέσσερα βιολογικά ποιοτικά στοιχεία της Οδηγίας, τα οποία συμβάλλουν στην αξιολόγηση της οικολογικής ποιότητας. Η οικολογική κατάσταση εκφράζει την ποιότητα της δομής των υδάτινων οικοσυστημάτων και της λειτουργίας των φυτικών συναθροίσεων. Η εργασία αυτή πραγματοποιήθηκε το 2013 στα πλαίσια της μεταπτυχιακής μου διατριβής και εντάσσεται στην ευρύτερη ερευνητική προσπάθεια του Εργαστηρίου Οικολογίας του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών, για την αξιολόγηση των ποτάμιων συστημάτων της Ελλάδας. Υλοποιήθηκε σε ποταμούς της Δυτικής Ελλάδας (Αλφειός, Πηνειός, Εύηνος και Νέδα), σε μια προσπάθεια εκτίμησης της περιβαλλοντικής τους κατάστασης σε όλο το μήκος τους, αλλά και το προσδιορισμό τυχών σχέσεων που μπορεί να είχαν μεταξύ τους. Οι δειγματοληψίες πραγματοποιήθηκαν το Καλοκαίρι του 2013 για τη συλλογή μακροφύτων ως βιολογικών δεικτών αλλά και δειγμάτων νερού για τον υπολογισμό φυσικοχημικών δεδομένων σύμφωνα με τα πρότυπα που έχει ορίσει η οδηγία 2000/60. Το πρόγραμμα παρακολούθησης περιλάμβανε: • Καταγραφή στο πεδίο φυσικοχημικών παραμέτρων του νερού, όπως βάθος (m), ταχύτητα ροής (km/h), θερμοκρασία (οC), αγωγιμότητα (mS/cm), διαλυμένο οξυγόνο (mg/l), pH, ολικά διαλυμένα στερεά (mg/l). • Στο εργαστήριο πραγματοποιήθηκαν χημικές αναλύσεις δειγμάτων νερού, οι οποίες περιλαμβάνουν τον υπολογισμό της αλκαλικότητας (mg/l), της συγκέντρωσης των θρεπτικών αλάτων φωσφόρου-SRP(μg/l), ΤP (μg/l), αζώτου- NO2-N (μg/l), NO3-N (μg/l) και ΝΗ4-Ν (μg/l) και ολικού αζώτου (ΤΝ) (μg/l). • Στο πεδίο συλλέχτηκαν ποσοτικά και ποιοτικά δεδομένα που αφορούν τη δομή των μακροφυτικών κοινωνιών, καθώς και τη χωρική διακύμανση της κατανομής και της ανάπτυξης των μακροφύτων. Για τις εργασίες πεδίου χρησιμοποιήθηκαν φορητά πολυπαραμετρικά όργανα, δειγματολήπτες νερού, ενώ για τις χημικές αναλύσεις φασματοφωτόμετρο και αναλυτές ολικού αζώτου της Shimadzu στο Εργαστήριο. Επίσης καταγράφηκαν οι ανθρωπογενείς πιέσεις που ασκούνται στη λεκάνη απορροής των ποταμών, οι τροποποιήσεις της φυσικής μορφολογίας τους, οι χρήσεις γης καθώς και οι ανθρωπογενείς δραστηριότητες στην περιοχή. Κατά την επεξεργασία των δεδομένων στο εργαστήριο πραγματοποιήθηκε ανάλυση των πιέσεων της περιοχής μελέτης με τη χρήση του πλαισίου DPSIR σύμφωνα με το οποίο εντοπίστηκαν και αξιολογήθηκαν οι πιέσεις που δημιουργούν τις σημαντικότερες επιπτώσεις στις λεκάνες απορροής. Αποτέλεσμα της μεθόδου ήταν πως η εκτεταμένη γεωργία είναι αυτή που δημιουργεί τις μεγαλύτερες επιπτώσεις στον κάτω ρου των ποταμών ενώ τα λιγνιτοεργοστάσια της Μεγαλόπολης επιβαρύνουν σε πολύ σημαντικό βαθμό τον Αλφειό στο σύνολό του. Από τη στατιστική επεξεργασία έγινε μια προσπάθεια ομαδοποίησης των σταθμών δειγματοληψίας ανάλογα με την ομοιότητά τους σε βιοτικούς και αβιοτικούς παράγοντες με τη χρήση της Ανάλυσης Ιεραρχικής Ομαδοποίησης (Cluster analysis). Από τη συγκεκριμένη ανάλυση προέκυψε μεγάλη ομοιότητα του κάτω ρου των ποταμών και σαφής διαφοροποίηση του άνω ρου του Αλφειού εξαιτίας του εργοστασίου της Δ.Ε.Η στη Μεγαλόπολη. Στη συνέχεια με τη χρήση της Ανάλυσης Κυρίων Συνιστωσών (PCA) και της Ανάλυσης Κανονικών Αντιστοιχιών (CCA) πραγματοποιήθηκε συσχετισμός των βιοτικών και αβιοτικών παραμέτρων των περιοχών μελέτης. Τέλος χρησιμοποιήθηκε ο δείκτης με υδρόβια μακρόφυτα IBMR (Macrophytes Biological Index for Rivers) για την εκτίμηση της οικολογικής ποιότητας των ποταμών. Από τα αποτελέσματα προέκυψε πως οι ποταμοί της Δυτικής Ελλάδας παρουσιάζουν μειωμένη παραγωγικότητα σε υδρόβια μακρόφυτα τόσο λόγω της επιβάρυνσης των ποταμών όσο και εξαιτίας της μεγάλης ταχύτητας ροής του νερού που δεν επιτρέπει την ανάπτυξη μακροφύτων στην κοίτη και τα κράσπεδα των ποταμών. Εν κατακλείδι η παρούσα μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε στα πλαίσια της Οικολογικής Αξιολόγησης των Υδάτινων Συστημάτων της Ελλάδας και κατάφερε να πετύχει του στόχους οι οποίοι είχαν τεθεί. Αποτέλεσε ένα σημαντικό διαχειριστικό εργαλείο καθώς έθεσε τις βάσεις για ένα ολοκληρωμένο δίκτυο παρακολούθησης των ποταμών της Δυτικής Ελλάδας. Εκτίμησε την οικολογική αλλά και τη χημική κατάσταση των οικοσυστημάτων όπως επίσης και τις πιέσεις στις οποίες υφίστανται αλλά και τις επιπτώσεις που προκαλούνται από αυτές. Τέλος αποτελεί έναυσμα για περαιτέρω παρακολούθηση των περιοχών αυτών αλλά και εκτίμηση της οικολογικής κατάστασής τους μακροπρόθεσμα. / The degradation of water quality in Europe has forced the European Parliament to adopt the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC which insists that EU member states achieve "good ecological status" of surface waters by 2015. Aquatic macrophytes are one of the four biological quality elements of the Directive, for the assessment of ecological quality. The ecological status represents the quality of the structure of aquatic ecosystems and the function of plant assemblages. The present inquiry was carried out in 2013 for my master thesis and is part of the research of the Laboratory of Ecology of the University of Patras for the evaluation of river systems in Greece. The purpose of the present study was to estimate the environmental status of the rivers of Western Greece (Alfeios, Pineios, Evinos, Neda) and to correlate their condition. During summer 2013, sampling was performed to collect macrophytes as biological indicators and water samples to calculate physicochemical data according to the standards of Directive 2000/60. The monitoring included: • Recording of physicochemical parameters of water, such as depth (m), flow velocity (km/h), temperature (oC), conductivity (mS/cm), dissolved oxygen (μg/l), pH and total dissolved solids (μg/l). • Chemical analysis of water samples in the lab, which include measurement of alkalinity (μg/l) and concentration of nutrients phosphorus-SRP (μg/l), total phosphorus TP (μg/l), nitrogen-NO2-N, NO3-N and NH4-N (μg/l) and total nitrogen (TN). • Collection of qualitative and quantitative data in the field concerning the structure of the macrophytic societies and the spatial variation of their distribution and development. For the field study, portable multiparameter devices and water samplers were used, whereas for the chemical analysis in the lab, spectrophotometer and Shimadzu total nitrogen analyzer were used. In addition, human pressure on drainage basin of the rivers, the changes to natural topography, the land use and the human activities in the region were recorded. For the data analysis and interpretation, DPSIR was used to analyze the pressures in the study area and evaluate which ones interfere more in the river basins. The results demonstrated that extensive agriculture cause the greatest damage in the lower course of the rivers and the lignite power plants of Megalopoli pollute river Alfeios. Moreover, cluster analysis was used to group the water samples regarding their resemblance in biotic and abiotic factors. The results indicate great similarity of the lower courses of the rivers and differentiate the upper course of Alfeios because of the presence of power station in Megalopoli. Principal component analysis (PCA) and canonical correlation analysis (CCA) were performed to correlate the biotic and abiotic factors of the study area. IBMR (Macrophytes Biological Index for Rivers) was also used to evaluate the ecological status of the rivers. The results show that the rivers of Western Greece present a low output in macrophytes because of the pollution of the rivers and the high speed flow of water that prevents the development of macrophytes in riverbed and river side curb. To sum up, the present study was conducted for the Ecological Evaluation of Aquatic ecosystems in Greece and succeeded the goals. It has been a management tool to set the basis for a network to monitor the rivers of Western Greece. It has accessed the ecological and chemical status of ecosystems, as well as the pressures that exist and the effects caused by them. Finally, it has been a trigger for further monitoring of these areas and assessment of the ecological status in the long term.

No description available.

To protect public health, detection and treatment technologies have been improved to monitor and inactivate pathogens in drinking water. The goal of this dissertation is to evaluate and utilize multiple online sensors and advanced oxidation processes to document both the detection as well as destruction of microbial contaminants in real-time. Reviews of rapid detection technologies for real-time monitoring of pathogens in drinking water and advanced technologies to inactivate pathogens in water are shown in Appendices A and B. The study in Appendix C evaluated the efficacy of real-time sensors for the detection of microbial contaminants. Bacillus thuringiensis was used in this research as a surrogate for Bacillus anthracis to determine each sensor response and detection capability. The minimum threshold responses of sensors were determined by injecting B.thuringiensis into deionized (DI), raw (unfiltered) tap water, or filtered tap water over a concentration range of 10² - 10⁵ spores/ml. The BioSentry sensor responded to increases in concentration over the range of 10² - 10⁵ spores/ml. Below this range, sensors provided signals undistinguishable from background noise. The select sensors can detect microbial water quality changes, and these advanced technologies can be integrated to monitor intrusion events in water distribution systems. The study in Appendix D evaluated the efficiency of the UV reactor for inactivation of MS2 coliphage. The virus MS2 coliphage (ATCC 15597-B1) has been proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a standard for UV reactor validation in the United States. In addition, MS2 is used as a surrogate for enteric viruses due to its similar size and morphology. Following UV radiation at a flow rate of 2gpm, infective MS2 showed a reduction of 5.3- log₁₀ when quantified with cultural plaque counts, whereas corresponding quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) data showed only a 1.7- log₁₀ reduction in viral RNA copy number. In contrast, plaque assay revealed a 5.8- log₁₀ inactivation; a slight increase in infective MS2 coliphage reduction at 1 gal per min but qPCR results indicate a 2.8- log₁₀ reduction in viral RNA copy number; a one log more inactivation compared to 2 gpm. When H₂O₂ was added at either 2.5 or 5 mg/l with UV at either flow rate, enhanced MS2 inactivation occurred with a greater than 7 log₁₀ reduction observed via plaque counts, indicating that all added MS2 had been inactivated, since no plaques were formed after incubation at 37°C for 24 hours. Correspondingly, qPCR data only showed a 3-4 log₁₀ reduction in viral RNA copy number. The study in Appendix E utilized online sensor to document the destruction of E.coli and Bacillus thuringiensis spores by UV/H₂O₂ treatment. In this study, Escherichia coli was tested for potential UV/H2O2 treatment in DI water and online sensors were also integrated to monitor the destruction in real-time. Pilot-scale experiments were performed using a Trojan UVSwift SC reactor (Trojan Technologies, London, ON, Canada) at a flow rate of 1 gal./min (gpm). UV radiation and UV/H₂O₂ combination in E.coli cell suspensions resulted in a >6 log₁₀ reduction of the viable counts. Similar exposure to B.thuringiensis spores resulted in a 3 log₁₀ reduction in viable counts. Scanning electron microscopy of the treated samples revealed severe damage on the surface of most E.coli cells, yet there was no significant change observed in the morphology of the B. thuringiensis spores. Following UV/H₂O₂ exposure, the BioSentry sensor showed an increase in the unknown, rod and spores counts, and did not correspond well when compared to viable counts assays. Data from this study show that advanced oxidation processes effectively inactivate E. coli vegetative cells, but not B.thuringiensis spores which were more resistant to UV/H₂O₂.