Η λίμνη Παμβώτιδα των Ιωαννίνων είναι μια τυπική εύτροφη ρηχή λίμνη που παρουσιάζει μεγάλο οικολογικό ενδιαφέρον (ανήκει στο δίκτυο «ΦΥΣΗ 2000» , αποτελεί ενδιαίτημα πολλών ελληνικών ενδημικών ειδών ) . Ο ευτροφισμός και η εισαγωγή πολλών αλλόχθονων κυπρινοειδών ειδών τα τελευταία χρόνια έχουν προκαλέσει τα τελευταία χρόνια δραματική μείωση της αφθονίας της υδρόβιας βλάστησης. Στα πλαίσια αυτής της μεταπτυχιακής διατριβής μελετήθηκε η δομή της υπάρχουσας υδρόβιας βλάστησης και αξιολογήθηκε η επίδραση της παρόχθιας ζώνης στα φυσικοχημικά χαρακτηριστικά του νερού κατά τη δειγματοληπτική περίοδο 2004-2005. Εφαρμόστηκαν οι μέθοδοι TWINSPAN και NMS προκειμένου η υδρόβια βλάστηση να ταξινομηθεί σε ευδιάκριτες ομάδες βλάστησης και η CCA ώστε να διαπιστωθούν συσχετίσεις μεταξύ των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων και των περιβαλλοντικών παραμέτρων. Πραγματοποιήθηκε ανάλυση διασποράς (one-way ANOVA) προκειμένου να διαπιστωθούν στατιστικά σημαντικές διαφορές μεταξύ των φυσικοχημικών χαρακτηριστικών του νερού της παρόχθιας ζώνης ,του νερού υδρόβιας βλάστησης εκτός παρόχθιας ζώνης και των ανοικτών νερών. Επιπλέον διερευνήθηκαν πιθανά εποχιακά πρότυπα στη διακύμανση των φυσικοχημικών παραμέτρων ενώ διερευνήθηκαν και πιθανές συσχετίσεις μεταξύ των παραμέτρων. Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν οι τροφικοί δείκτες Carlson για την αξιολόγηση της τροφικής κατάστασης της λίμνης και την εξαγωγή χρήσιμων συμπερασμάτων. Τα αποτελέσματα των αναλύσεων έδειξαν πως η υφυδατική βλάστηση έχει μειωθεί σε δραματικά επίπεδα ,ενώ έχουν απομείνει ελάχιστα είδη που παρουσιάζουν μέγιστη τιμή πληθοκάλυψης την άνοιξη. Διακρίθηκαν 4 ομάδες υδρόβιας βλάστησης εκ των οποίων οι 3 αντιστοιχούν σε ομάδες εφυδατικής βλάστησης. Η παρόχθια ζώνη παρουσίασε χαμηλότερα επίπεδα SRP ,pH ,διαλυμένου οξυγόνου ,ανθρακικών και διαφάνειας και υψηλότερα επίπεδα όξινων ανθρακικών ,αγωγιμότητας και λόγου διαφάνειας προς βάθος σε σχέση με τους άλλους δύο οικότυπους. Τα φωσφορικά και τα αμμωνιακά κυμάνθηκαν σε υψηλά επίπεδα το καλοκαίρι ενώ τα νιτρικά εμφάνισαν την υψηλότερη συγκέντρωσή τους το φθινόπωρο. Ο λόγος DIN /SRP κυμάνθηκε σε χαμηλές τιμές ( <15) υποδεικνύοντας περιοριστικές συνθήκες αζώτου ενώ η τροφική κατάσταση της λίμνης κατατάσσεται ως εύτροφη σύμφωνα με τον τροφικό δείκτη Carlson. Σύμφωνα με τα παραπάνω υπάρχουν ενδείξεις πως η παρόχθια ζώνη, είτε λόγω των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων είτε λόγω άλλων μηχανισμών ,επηρεάζει με διάφορους τρόπους ορισμένα φυσικοχημικά χαρακτηριστικά του νερού. Τα αυξημένα επίπεδα φωσφόρου το καλοκαίρι υποδεικνύουν την ύπαρξη μηχανισμών απελευθέρωσης φωσφόρου από το ίζημα ,ενώ οι χαμηλές τιμές του λόγου DIN/SRP αποτελούν ένδειξη για την επικράτηση αζωτοδεσμευτικών κυανοβακτηρίων με δυσμενείς επιπτώσεις για την υδρόβια ζωή. / Lake Pamvotis is a shallow eutrophic lake situated in northwestern Greece (Region of Epirus). The lake has been stocked with grass carp and common carp during the last years and since then a serious decline of submerged vegetation has been observed. The aquatic vegetation of the lake was studied during the sampling period 2004 –2005 and was classified in groups using TWINSPAN and NMS. CCA was performed in order to examine relationships between the aquatic macrophyte species abundance and the environmental variables. Moreover ,it was investigated the effect of the littoral zone on physical and chemical characteristics of water quality and the seasonal patterns of the environmental variables. One –way ANOVA was used to determine statistical significant differences of environmental variables between the littoral zone and the non –littoral plots with aquatic vegetation and without aquatic vegetation. The trophic state index of Carlson was calculated to evaluate the trophic state of the lake. The results showed a great decline of submerged aquatic vegetation and only a few submersed species were recorded (Ranunculus trichophyllus ,Potamogeton crispus ,Callitriche stagnalis). One-way ANOVA showed that SRP ,pH ,surface D.O ,carbonates and transparency were lower in the littoral zone while bicarbonates ,conductivity and transparency /depth ratio were higher. Higher SRP was recorded during the summer due to increased internal loading from the sediment ,while higher nitrate concentrations were occured during the autumn. The ratio DIN/SRP ranged in low values (<15) from spring to autumn indicating N limiting conditions where cyanobacteria blooms are likely to be dominant. The trophic state of the lake is classified as eutrophic according to the Kratzer and Brezonik classification system.

American Water Resources Association Symposium Proceedings / Reprinted from Establishment of Water Quality Monitoring Programs / Edited By: Lorne G. Everett and Kenneth D. Schmidt / June 12-14, 1978 / San Francisco, California / Traditional techniques for monitoring the mass flux of pollutants in the vadose zone involve obtaining point samples of solute, either by core sampling of solids, followed by laboratory extraction, or by installation of suction probes. An alternative sampling technique, discussed in this paper, is to sample perched ground water within the vadose zone. Large amounts of water may be pumped for sampling purposes from wells drilled into productive, perched ground -water bodies. Alternatively, cascading water from perched regions may be sampled in wells with perforations above the water table. Analytical results of samples from such wells are more representative of regional conditions than small point samples. Case studies are presented on sampling from perched ground water underlying a point source (an oxidation pond), a line source (an ephemeral stream), and a diffuse source (irrigation return flow).

Pima Association of Governments 208 Project / Nonpoint Source Pollution, A Report on Tasks 5321, 5327, and 5332 / Prepared by: Water Resources Research Center and College of Agriculture / The University of Arizona, November 1977

As of 2010, there are approximately twenty one surface water locations classified as impaired for Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination in the State of Arizona. Of note is the San Francisco River (SFR) which is currently listed on the US EPA 303d list of impaired waters due to E. coli bacteria present at higher concentrations than the US EPA standards for partial- and full-body contact. In 2010-2011 surface water samples were collected at sites within the impaired region to monitor E. coli and areas known for heavy recreational uses. Of 70 samples collected over 1 year, 81% were positive for universal Bacteroides marker (Allbac). Of the 57 Allbac-positive samples, 68% show contributions of the human-specific marker and 60% were positive for bovine-specific marker. While 28% of the total samples assayed showed elevated levels of E. coli (>235 MPN/100mL), there were minimal significant correlations between Bacteroides and generic E. coli across all samples. While this information is significant, past research has suggested that successfully distinguishing the sources of fecal contamination will not alone reduce or eliminate disease associated with contaminated water unless these investigations are coupled with public outreach and education. With this in mind a survey was developed to gather information about water quality perceptions, water use, peoples' attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors related to the water resources in Clifton, AZ. Survey questions consisted of multiple choice and Likert scales questions and were provided in both English and Spanish and were conducted during the summer of 2012 and winter of 2013. A total of 150 surveys were deployed with 38 surveys completed for a response rate of 25%. Our study findings indicate mixed attitudes on water quality with 80% reporting the SFR has poor water quality for drinking and 39% agree the SFR has poor water quality for swimming. Yet, 84% consider the river safe enough for picnics and activities near the water. Also, it was interesting to note participants' opinions regarding consequences of poor water quality with 66% of respondents indicating that they are concerned with poor water quality and their health. Clifton is a very tight knit community so it was not unexpected that the majority of the respondents (61%) get water quality information by having conversations with other people and 68% from newspapers, factsheets and brochures. Based on the survey responses, our team worked to develop two peer reviewed Extension publications entitled; Microbial Source Tracking: Watershed Characterization and Source Identification (Arizona Cooperative Extension, #AZ1547) and Water Quality, E. coli, and Your Health (#AZ1624). Publications have been developed in both English and Spanish and will be part of future outreach to this and other Arizona communities. It is our goal that these survey findings can be used to better tailor outputs appropriate for the targeted audience, namely the local Hispanic population. These results are important because they add to understanding perceptions of water quality and health risks in this rural community; and can lend towards enhanced outreach practices in other similar communities.

Utilization of areas adjacent to rivers for agricultural and industrial purposes can have detrimental effects on water quality and can potentially impact human and ecosystem health downstream. In this study we tested water quality along a stretch of the effluent-dependent Santa Cruz River near Nogales, AZ. This stretch of river has historically been impaired, but prior to upgrades to the Nogales International Wastewater Treatment Plant (NIWTP) in 2009. Our work endeavored to assess water quality according to the Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) standards, and identify sources of pollution entering the river system. Heavy metals were analyzed via ICP. Three IDEXX quantification systems were used to detect E. coli, Enterococcus, and P. aeruginosa as fecal indicators or potential threats to public health. Potential fecal sources were analyzed using quantitative PCR targeting Bacteroides DNA markers for total, human, and bovine feces (Allbac, HF183, and CowM2, respectively). The NIWTP effectively removed chemical and biological contaminants. The lowest E. coli counts occurred at the site located at the NIWTP outfall (mean = 5 MPN/100ml) while the highest counts (mean = 348 MPN/100 ml) came from Nogales Wash, a tributary receiving untreated flow from Nogales, Mexico. The Allbac marker was detected in all samples, while approximately 97% of samples tested positive for HF183 and 33% tested positive for the CowM2 marker. Continued monitoring of effluent effects on river quality and evaluation of water quality degradation will lead to improvements in the management of Arizona's riparian areas and will ultimately contribute to healthy water bodies.

Die Verwendung anthropogener organischer Spurenstoffe wie beispielsweise Pharmazeutika, Lifestyle-Produkte, Biozide und Pestizide als Indikatoren für die Bewertung der Wasserqualität hat großes Interesse in der Wissenschaftsgemeinde geweckt, und die Verwendung dieser Substanzen als Indikatoren für die Prozessoptimierung, Quellzuordnung und zur Abschätzung des Ausmaßes einer möglichen Kontamination (z. B. den Abwasseranteil von Oberflächen- und Grundwasser) besitzt ein sehr großes Anwendungspotential. Die hier präsentierte Arbeit ist die erfolgreiche und konsequente Weiterführung bestehender Forschungsaktivitäten zur Eignung ausgewählter Spurenstoffe als Indikatoren für die Bewertung der Wasserqualität, ihrem Vorkommen und Verhalten in der Umwelt sowie ihrer Redox-spezifischen Transformation. Um eine Substanz als Indikator verwenden zu können, müssen sensitive und selektive Analysenmethoden verfügbar sein. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Entwicklung einer Multimethode für den Nachweis von 46 basischen, neutralen und sauren Analyten mittels der Hochleistungs-Flüssigchromatographie und Elektronenspray-Ionisation (ESI) mit anschließender Tandem-Massenspektrometrie (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) beschrieben. Das ausgewählte Analytenspektrum deckt einen weiten Bereich hinsichtlich der Polarität der Stoffe (log Kow <0–5,9) sowie ihrer repräsentierten Kontaminationsquellen ab. Die Besonderheit der entwickelten Methode stellt die simultane Festphasenanreicherung (SPE), Trennung und Detektion aller Analyten dar. Um dieses realisieren zu können, wird das ESI-Interface in beiden möglichen Operationsmodi (+/−) verwendet, so dass pro Probe nur eine Injektion notwendig ist. Die Bestimmungsgrenzen der Methode in Fluss- und Meerwasser liegen im Bereich weniger ng/L. Im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit wird die hohe Flexibilität der Methode (Integration zusätzlicher Analyten und Anpassung an andere Wassertypen) demonstriert. Im darauf folgenden Abschnitt werden die Ergebnisse eines intensiven Fluss-Monitorings vorgestellt. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf der Korrelation von 41 Spurenstoffen mit Kalium (K+) und deren räumlichen und zeitlichen Varianz. Da Urin je nach K+-Hintergrundkonzentration des Gewässers eine signifikante K+-Quelle darstellen kann, ist in Gewässern mit hohem Abwasseranteil eine positive Korrelation von abwasserbürtigen Stoffen und K+ zu erwarten. Diese Korrelation ist für Stoffe mit folgenden Charakteristika bestätigt worden: 1) Kläranlagenabläufe sind die Hauptquelle der Substanz; 2) Die Fracht der Substanz in der Kläranlage ist nur geringen zeitlichen Schwankungen unterworfen; und 3) Hohe Persistenz der Verbindung bei der Abwasserbehandlung und in der Umwelt. Neben anderen Spurenstoffen zeigen Carbamazepin, Sulfamethoxazol und Tolyltriazol die beste Korrelation. Darüber hinaus sind die K+-Äquivalente der einzelnen Stoffe offensichtlich abhängig von Landnutzung und Bevölkerungsstruktur im Einzugsgebiet des untersuchten Flussabschnitts. Eine Korrelation mit K+ zeigt, dass die Konzentration des korrelierenden Spurenstoffs nur vom Abfluss des Fließgewässers abhängig ist. Nach diesem Konzept könnte die Vorhersage der Konzentration entsprechender Spurenstoffe an bestimmten Flussabschnitten erheblich vereinfacht werden. Analog zu den genannten Charakteristika 1–3 kann der Ansatz zur Quellidentifizierung neu auftretender/identifizierter Substanzen genutzt werden. Darüber hinaus könnten Eintragsfunktionen für die korrelierenden Spurenstoffe hinsichtlich Oberflächenwasser/Grundwasser-Interaktion hergeleitet werden. Dies würde eine realistischere Bewertung der Reinigungsleistung von Anlagen zur (künstlichen) Grundwasseranreicherung ermöglichen. Anschließend wird eine Methode präsentiert, mit Hilfe derer sich das Volumen von schnell transportiertem, unbehandeltem Abwasser in einem Karstaquifer abschätzen lässt. Eine Kontamination mit unbehandeltem Abwasser und die damit verbundene bakterielle Belastung stellen eine ernsthafte Bedrohung für die Trinkwasserqualität und die öffentliche Gesundheit dar. Das Ausmaß einer Kontamination quantifizieren zu können ist allerdings meist problematisch. Daher wurde ein bereits bekannter Massenbilanzansatz der aktuellen Fragestellung angepasst. In die Berechnung der Abwassermenge fließen ein: Die Coffein-Fracht an der Quelle, die übliche Coffein-Belastung in unbehandeltem Abwasser und der tägliche durchschnittliche Trinkwasserverbrauch pro Person im beobachteten Quelleinzugsgebiet. Der entwickelte Ansatz wurde zur Berechnung der täglich zuströmenden Abwassermenge an einem bereits gut charakterisierten Karstaquifer (Gallusquelle, Deutschland) angewendet. Weiterhin werden die Ergebnisse einer Mikrokosmos-Studie zur Transformation des Antibiotikums Sulfamethoxazol (SMX) unter denitrifizierenden Bedingungen vorgestellt. Ein selektiver Reaktionsmechanismus mit den unter denitrifizierenden Bedingungen gebildeten N-Spezies Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) und Nitrit (NO2−) ist die zugrunde liegende Arbeitshypothese und die Bildung der daraus abgeleiteten Transformationsprodukte (TP) 4-Nitro-N-(5-methylisoxazol-3-yl)-benzenesulfonamid (4-Nitro-SMX) und N-(5-methylisoxazol-3-yl)-benzenesulfonamid (Desamino-SMX) während des zeitlichen Verlaufs eines Wasser/Sediment-Batchversuchs wird dargestellt. Beide TPs können auch in Umweltproben nachgewiesen werden. Unter geeigneten Reaktionsbedingungen kann das TP 4-Nitro-SMX zudem zu SMX retransformiert werden. Dies zeigt die hohe Relevanz der vorliegenden Arbeit hinsichtlich des Vorkommens und Verhaltens dieses Antibiotikums in der Umwelt und für das Monitoring der Wasserqualität. Darüber hinaus können Redox-spezifische TPs als Indikatoren für den reaktiven Stofftransport verwendet werden.

Šiame darbe nagrinėjama požeminio vandens kokybės dinamika skirtinguose Lietuvos regionuose: šiaurės, vidurio, pietų ir pietvakarių. Pagrindinė požeminio vandens kokybės monitoringo užduotis yra kaupti ir vertinti informaciją apie ilgalaikius požeminio vandens išteklių būklės kitimus dėl gamtinių ir antropogeninių veiksnių. Požeminio vandens kokybės analizei buvo pasirinkti Karajimiškio, Lančiūnavos, Išdagų ir Varėnos stabėjimo postų gręžiniai. Analizuojami 2005-2007 m. duomenys. Duomenų analizė parodė, kad požeminio vandens tarša priklauso nuo dirvožemio granuliometrinės sudėties, požeminio vandens slūgsojimo gylio, kritulių kiekio, žemėnaudos. Lietuvos sulfatinio karsto regione, Karajimiškio posto požeminiame vandenyje visais analizuojamais metais nustatyta didžiausia amonio, sulfatų, kalio, kalcio ir magnio koncentracija. Lančiūnavos posto gręžinyje visais analizuojamais metais nustatyta didžiausia nitratų koncentracija. Iš visų analizuotų gręžinių, geriausios kokybės vanduo nustatytas Varėnos posto gręžinyje. / The aim of this thesis is to analyse underwater quality dynamics in different Lithuanian regions: northern, middle, southern and south – western. The main task of water quality monitoring is to hill up and estimate information about long-lasting underwater natural recourses condition changes due to natural and anthropogenic factors. Karajimiskis, Lanciunava, Isdagai and Varena observation posts boreholes were chosen for underwater quality analysis. Data period is 2005-2007 y. Data analysis showed that underwater pollution depends on soil composition, waterlogging depth, precipitation quantity, land-tenure. The greatest concentration of ammonium and sulphates were measured in Karajimiskis post. The best water quality was observed in Varena observation post.

The Salmon River Watershed, Langley, B.C., is on the urban-rural fringe of the Greater Vancouver Regional District. A major aquifer within the Salmon River Watershed provides rural residents with drinking water and maintains stream flow during the summer. The highly mixed land use activities in the watershed, consisting of residential development, commercial agriculture and hobby farming, are resulting in non-point source nitrogen pollution of stream and groundwater. The purpose of this study was to determine how the type, intensity and changes in land use activities have affected water quality. Indicators such as nitrate-N, ammonia-N, orthophosphate, and faecal coliforms and streptococci were used to characterize water quality. Animal unit and septic system densities and nitrogen loading were used as land use indicators. Land use/water quality relationships were analyzed with a Geographic Information System (GIS). The Salmon River and its tributaries are relatively healthy. Most of the water quality indicators met the appropriate criteria for drinking water and aquatic life. Nitrate-N concentrations and microbial counts, however, have been and continue to be a concern. While nitrate-N was below the maximum drinking water quality criterion of 10 mg-N L'1 at all stations there are localized areas where nitrate-N concentrations are above background and reaching levels of concern (5 mg-N L"1). The highest nitrate-N concentrations were measured during low-flow conditions. This suggests that the nitrogen-polluted groundwater is affecting the stream during the summer. In contrast, faecal coliforms and streptocci counts were higher during high-flow conditions suggesting runoff from agricultural fields on which manure is spread in the late fall. More than 3,200 septic systems have been installed in the Salmon River Watershed between 1930 and 1994, a large number of which are located on the Hopington Aquifer. The pattern of increasing septic system densities closely matched the increase in streamwater nitrate-N from up to downstream in both the Salmon River mainstem and Coghlan Creek upstream of their confluence. Agricultural activities are concentrated on large commercial operations. However, hobby farms are becoming a more important component of the agricultural sector in the urban-rural fringe environment. There has been an overall decrease in animal numbers, mostly due to fewer cattle, poultry and pigs between 1986 and 1991. In contrast, horses and sheep, often associated with small farms, increased in number over the same time period. Animal unit densities increased from up to downstream in the Salmon River mainstem to its confluence with Coghlan Creek as does the streamwater nitrate-N concentration. In the Coghlan, however, animal unit densities did not vary, yet the nitrate-N values in this section of the stream increased the most. These results suggest that residential and agricultural uses are both sources of nitrogen in the Salmon mainstem, while septic systems are the primary source in Coghlan Creek. A nitrogen mass balance was used to quantify the sources (manure, fertilizers, the atmosphere and septic systems) and sinks (crop uptake, management losses, dentrification) of nitrogen in the watershed in order to determine the amount of surplus nitrogen being applied. The contribution of septic systems accounted for about 20 % of the surplus loading in the watershed, while large farms contributed about 68 % and small farms 12 % of the surplus loading. There is a poor linear relationship between high nitrate-N values in the stream and corresponding spatial inputs of nitrogen from manure, fertilizers and septic systems. This is due to the highly variable surficial geology, the complexity of groundwater hydrology and the spatial lag between areas of high nitrogen surplus applications and water quality sampling stations. The area near the Salmon River-Coghlan Creek confluence is the most affected section of streams in the watershed and should be used as the key site to monitor environmental quality in the watershed.

A decision support framework (DSF) to guide watershed management planning in St. Lucia was developed. The DSF, supported by three components, integrated physiographic criteria in spatially defining sustainable land management regimes, crop suitability based on agro-ecologic zoning criteria, and water quality modelling tools. / In the first component, a methodology for agricultural and forestry land management zoning based on decision-rule frameworks was developed, employing GIS-based spatial multiple-criteria integration techniques. Land capability, recommended land management regimes, crop suitability and broad agricultural/forestry land utilization type zones were derived for the country. Sixteen broad agricultural and forestry land utilization types (LUTs) based on FAO agro-ecologic zoning guidelines were spatially defined over the island. These LUT zones represent relative suitability for rain-fed annual and perennial crop production, grazing and forestry. / In the second component, field research to quantify rainfall, runoff and erosion from two small watersheds under contrasting land management regimes was undertaken. Over the study period the erosion rate from an intensively cultivated, degraded agricultural watershed was 20 times that of a completely forested watershed. SCS curve numbers were evaluated for both watersheds based on rainfall-runoff relationships. / The third component demonstrated the application of a distributed-parameter hydrologic/water quality model, AnnAGNPS, in land management scenario evaluation, in terms of runoff and soil erosion. Data from the second component were used to calibrate and validate the model in simulation of daily runoff and erosion losses from the two watersheds over the study period. The model generally performed better in runoff simulation for the agricultural watershed compared to the forested watershed. Average annual erosion rates under current land management regimes were estimated at 73.3 and 7.2 t/ha for the agricultural and forested watersheds respectively. The model was applied to simulate runoff and erosion losses from the agricultural watershed under alternative sustainable land management regimes derived in the first component. Simulated average annual erosion losses were reduced to 9.2 t/ha. / This study demonstrated the application of efficient and powerful computer-based tools in the development of a decision support framework for watershed management planning for small islands.

The challenge of water provision in third world cities is to maintain the supply in the context of inadequate and inefficient piped water infrastructure and diminishing raw resources. In order to examine the role of governance in this, I utilize a range of theoretical positions: the welfare orientation, rational choice paradigm, common goods theory and regime theory, and present them as ways to explore the subjective dimension of water provision. Using the city of Jakarta, Indonesia as a case study, this dissertation explores the issues using different perspectives on a single principal focus, the roles of the government and its relations to non-governmental actors. This research used data from secondary materials such as management reports, policy and academic reports, and scientific studies. The major source of primary data were interviews conducted with about 40 key actors. Qualitative analysis used a system of information coding and triangulation. The conclusion reached is that the approach to managing clean water provision needs to be redefined in relation to the water management regimes found in situated research. In Jakarta, one may define three regimes: piped water, surface and shallow groundwater, and deep groundwater. Accessing water from greater urban watershed, treatment plants and a "manufacturing process" results in the delivery of a product. Such a system reduces the possibility of the tragedy of the commons, that is, the over-extraction of groundwater by individuals. But a more inclusive and enforced regulatory system must be established for groundwater, as it remains a needed source of supply. Local and low-technology solutions, international agency assistance, the policies of privatization and decentralization, and better land use planning, all hold out the promise of movement towards a solution. But, as the case study demonstrates, success has so far been mixed. Many options do not address water scarcity at the city level and problems of inequitable service. It is only the prospect government reform towards a better allocation of roles, new management ideas and greater co-operation within and among the water regimes that will lead to better provision of clean water.