In September 2000 water fluoridation became mandatory in South Africa. Since then water service providers like Umgeni Water (UW), a bulk water supply authority in the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province of South Africa began the process of implementing the legislation. This study was undertaken to establish the spatio-temporal variations of fluoride concentrations in surface and ground waters within the Umgeni Operational Area, to establish whether these waters would require fluoridation or defluoridation to meet a fluoride concentration of 0.70 mglf, and to assess the potential impacts of water fluoridation. Baseline fluoride concentrations of surface and ground water: It was concluded that the fluoride concentration of all sample types (rivers, dams, water works raw and final waters, wastewater influent and effluents, and boreholes), except pollution point sources, is less than O.S; mglR, 50 percent of the time. Some rivers (Mshazi, KwaNyuswa, KwaNgcolosi,·Mshwati and the MgoShongweni) exhibited high fluoride concentrations, while someboreholes also exhibited high fluoride concentrations. Temporal Variations and Seasonality: There are seasonal variations in the fluoride concentrations for surface waters, with higher fluoride concentrations in winter than in summer (64 out of 125 occasions). This low fluoride concentration in summer can be attributed to the dilution effects caused by rainfall runoff. Identification of "Hot Spots": "Hot Spots", sites where the fluoride concentration exceeds 1 mglR are present within the study area, for surface and borehole water. For surface water, the MgoShongweni exhibited fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mglRat least 75% of the time. The KwaNgcolosi and Mshwati exhibited fluoride concentrations In excess of 1mglR at least 25% of the time, while the Mshazi and the KwaNyuswa exhibited fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mglR only 5% of the time. The storm water discharge below AECI had high fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mg/R at least 20% of the time and the concentrations exceeded the fluoride concentration for seawater (1.4 mglf) at least 5% of the time. Of the 286 boreholes sampled, 17 boreholes (6% of all boreholes sampled) had fluoride levels in excess oft mglf . The impacts of long term consumption of water from these boreholes could range from slight mottling of the dental enamel in sensitive individuals (boretioles JD26, C29, H19, CB7, 112/1, 69/5, Thembeni 108 and EC (Thembeni 105, Keats Drift boreholes 1 and 2). Spatial patterns and possible sources of high fluoride concentrations: With respect to spatial patterns, relatively high concentrations of fluoride (300 IJglR to 1000 IJglR) can be found in surface water in the Msunduzi river, the Mgeni river downstream of the Msunduzi confluence and along the coastal belt. No spatial patterns are evident with respect to borehole water. For surface water, high fluoride concentrations in the Mshazi, KwaNyuswa and the KwaNgcolosi streams (inflows to the Inanda dam) appear to be associated with the catchment geology. The ~igh fluoride concentrations in Mshwati and the MgoShongweni are most likely as a result of industrial activities in the respective catchments. For borehole water, high fluoride concentrations may be attributed to catchment geology. Additional fluoride dosaqe ' at water treatment works: Since the fluoride concentrations at the water works were low (mean ranging between 0.5 mglf to 0.38 mglf) , fluoride would need to be added to meet the fluoride standard of 0.7 mgl£ . For most of the water works, the additional fluoride (sodium fluoride) requirement to meet the fluoride standard of 0.7 mgl£, ranged from 1.201 kglMRto 1.555 kg/MR. For the water works, Imfume and Umzinto, the additional fluoride , requirement is 0.768 kg/MR and 0.109 kg/MR respectively. In final water, the fluctuations in fluoride concentrations observed would translate to continuous testing being required to maintain optimal dosing of fluoride. Comparison of influent and effluent fluoride concentrations at wastewater works: There was no evidence of fluoride removal at the Mpophomeni Wastewater Works . There was evidence of 22.4% fluoride removal at the DarvHI Wastewater Works possibly due to the activated sludge treatment process at the wastewater works. Future fluoride levels in surface water that will receive return flows: Once water fluoridation is implemented, the Darvill Wastewater Works would receive fluoridated return flows, and discharge its fluoride rich effluent into the Msunduzi river. The average monthly fluoride road discharged from Darvill Wastewater Works would increase from 0.23 tons to 1.46 tons, an additional 1.23 tons per month on the aquatic environment of the Msunduzi river. The sludge fluoride load, disposed to land, could increase from 4 056 tons/month to 27 863 tons/month, which implies an increase in the fluoride runoff potential from the sludge-lands to the Msunduzi river. Number of people in sensitive groups that could be affected by water fluoridation: A significant number of people in KZN could be sensitive to water fluoridation. This has been estimated to be at least one third of KZN's population that are HIV infected. Recommendations were made and the most important ones are as follows: In the light of the large number of people, one-third the population of KZN, that is HIV positive and therefore could be sensitive to fluoridated water, it is recommended that the South African legislation mandating water fluoridation be withdrawn. Examination of the most recent literature indicated a significant lack of confidence in the best available studies that researched the safety and efficacy of water fluoridation. In the light of this it is recommended that the South African Department of Health re-examine and withdraw its legislation that mandates water fluoridation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

Dams hold numerous benefits for society through their ability to store water on a long-term basis. However, it is well-known that there is a detrimental effect of dams on the rivers that they impound, and this has been taken into account by the South African National Water Act (1998). The Act specifies a two component Reserve to provide a basic water supply to humans and to provide protection to downstream rivers and their associated ecosystems. From an ecological perspective, emphasis is now placed on ensuring that flow in rivers is maintained in a state that closely mimics the natural flow regime in order to sustain the water resource and its associated aquatic ecosystems. The resulting challenge for water resources modelling is to develop operating rule frameworks that can account for water supply to multiple users, including the "environment" which represents downstream aquatic ecosystems. These frameworks need to consider both water stored in dams, as well as water in the river which has been allocated to different water uscrs. Such an operating rule framework has been implemented ID the daily time-step ACRU agrohydrological model in order to: (a) satisfy the requirements of water users in general, (b) (c) include the environment as a user of water, and thus attempt to satisfy the water requirements of rivers and their associated ecosystems by making artificial releases from dams using both a simple and a complicated approach for determining the environmental requirements. The framework identifies four types of water users, each of which are capable of requesting water from a water source. These users are: a domestic user, representing the basic human needs component of the Reserve, an environmental user, representing the ecological component of the Reserve, an industrial user and an irrigator. The environmental user can generate water requests using either a simple or a complex environmental request method. The simple approach has proved to be oversimplified while the complex approach is capable of producing a flow regime downstream of a dam that closely mimics the natural flow regime. Two operating rules are employed to supply water to the four users, a generic dam operating rule, which considers water requested from a dam, and a channel operating rule, which considers water requested from a river. The two operating rules determine the amounts of water that each user can receive through the use of a curtailment structure, where abstractions made by users are limited, based on the storage level in the dam. Extensive validation of the framework has taken place and a case study was undertaken on the Pongola-Bivane river system which includes the Paris Dam in order to run various real-life scenarios. The results obtained show not only that the operating rule framework is functioning correctly, but that the use of a curtailment structure holds advantages for increasing assurance levels of the water users. There is also evidence to suggest that future possibilities exist for practical application of the operating rule framework to "everyday" dam operations. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal,Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Rand Water contracted UNISA to develop a monetary valuation method for its open spaces and their inherent ecological functions. This study began by reviewing existing contemporary definitions of open space in South Africa and then identifying their key characteristics. The research project then looked at the economic contribution that open spaces make to the economy as a basis for environmental valuation. By determining the economic value of open spaces, decision makers can be informed about the importance of open space provision, preservation and maintenance. The project applied the participatory action research method which requires the active participation of focus groups. The focus groups consisted of Rand Water employees who deal with open spaces in their respective areas of work. During the literature review and problem formulation the various limitations of environmental valuation methods became evident. It became apparent that the development of new valuation methods would not be possible before existing valuation methods had been tested to see if they could feasibly be applied to open space in the Rand Water context. A literature review also determined that open space valuation studies in South Africa are very limited, which made it difficult to formulate a localised context. It was furthermore found that environmental valuers prefer to use the contingent valuation, travel cost and hedonic pricing methods. These methods rely on revealed and stated preferences of open space users to infer an economic value for an open space. Access to Rand Water’s open spaces is largely limited owing to strict access control. The excludability of open space users therefore hampers the generation of sufficient data to apply revealed and stated preference valuation methods. On the basis of this finding, it was decided to eliminate the contingent valuation and travel cost methods from this study. It was decided to apply the constraint composition theory, under the grounded theory model, to study the constraints or moderators which could affect the feasibility of environmental valuation application to Rand Water open spaces. Four moderators were then identified which could influence the outcome of the feasibility assessment. These are the limitations of the methods, the limitations of the legal framework, the limitations of the user and the limitations of the study area. It was found that the limitations of the methods were a moderator owing to their inherent data requirements. The only suitable valuation methods vi were found to be market based as they were not influenced by the excludability factor. These methods include the replacement cost, damage cost avoided, restoration cost and defensive expenditure valuation methods. The focus group was introduced to each method by participating in a method application exercise. Questionnaires regarding each method were completed to test variables. The legal framework was found not to be a moderator since even though there are limited direct provisions in legislation to mandate environmental valuation, there are legal principles which require economic impacts to be measured and damage to the environment to be estimated. These principles in themselves have supported litigation cases and the mere admission of environmental value estimates in court as evidence and support to a case therefore sets the required legal precedence and mandates further application. The user was found not to be a moderator. Feedback from the focus groups as well as an environmental resource economics workshop held at the Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment showed that users understood environmental valuation principles, their benefits and limitations. With training, environmental scientists can apply these methods. The study area was found to be a moderator. The limited access for potential open space users, limited harvesting, limited agriculture and limited open space categories result in limited values that can be measured. In conclusion, it was found that not all environmental valuation methods can be applied to Rand Water open space owing to inherent limitations of the methods and the study area. Only market-based methods were found to be suitable for use on Rand Water open space. Notwithstanding the limitations of the methods and study area, which restrict the ability of valuers to obtain a total economic value for Rand Water open space, the available suite of methods can provide an indicator of value for environmental goods and services that flow from the utility’s open spaces. It was concluded that the application of environmental valuation methods to Rand Water open space is feasible within the context of the identified limitations. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: CHEMICAL ENGINEERING in the FACULTY OF ENGINEERING at the CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY 2013 / This study focused on quantifying two types of internationally regulated contaminants found in drinking water: 1) Trihalomethanes (THMs) and 2) Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs). The first contaminants monitored were THMs, classified as a group of chemicals that are formed along with others during the disinfection of water using liquid chlorine, chlorine dioxide or chlorine gas. Hence, the resulting compounds are called disinfection by-products (DBPs). The disinfectant reacts with natural organic matter in water to form common THMs, which include chloroform (CHCl3 or CF), bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br or BDCM), dibromochloromethane (CHClBr2 or DBCM) and bromoform (CHBr3 or BF), with chloroform being the most common in chlorinated water systems. The current study has focused on THMs for two primary reasons: 1) THMs have raised significant concern as a result of evidence that associate their presence in drinking water with potential adverse human health effects, including cancer and 2) the levels of THMs in drinking water post-treatment is not monitored regularly in South Africa and thus far, there is inadequate and limited information about their concentration levels for drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and distribution stations (DWDSs) of the Western Cape, South Africa before, distribution to various suburbs, including townships. THMs normally occur at higher levels than any other known DBPs and their presence in treated water is a representative of the occurrence of many other DBPs. THMs were quantified in chlorinated drinking water obtained from seven (7) DWTPs, namely; Atlantis, Blackheath, Faure, Brooklands, Steenbras, Voelvlei and Wemmershoek, and one DWDS in Plattekloof. This included determining THMs concentration in tap water collected from various suburbs including townships, to assist local authorities in obtaining information on their concentration and whether or not the presence of residual chlorine and organic matter on post-treatment results has increased THMs at the point of use. THM analysis was performed using liquid-liquid extraction/gas chromatography with electron capture detector (LLE-GC-ECD) analytical process according to the EPA method 501.2, which was used with minor modifications. The instrument operational conditions were as follows: Column → DB5-26, 30 mm, 0.53 mm, 1.0 μm df HP-1 (Agilent Technologies, USA); Carrier gas → Helium at a constant inlet pressure of 15 kPa; Make-up gas → 99.9% Nitrogen gas at 60 L/min; Injector temperature → 40°C; Oven temperature → 270°C and Detector temperature → 300°C. Since natural organic matter (NOM) in raw water is a precursor for THM formation, NOM analysis was performed as total organic carbon (TOC) using Spectroquant TOC test kits. Other drinking water quality parameters analysed were pH, residual free chlorine, conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS). The average Total THM concentrations detected from seven of the DWTPs, including the DWDS, ranged from 26.52 μg/L (for Plattekloof) to 32.82 μg/L (for Brooklands), with the observed concentrations being comparable. The average chloroform concentrations were the highest in all the water samples, ranging from 11.74 μg/L (for Plattekloof) to 22.29 μg/L (for Voelvlei), while DBCM had the lowest concentration. The only DWTP that was not comparable with the seven DWTPs was Atlantis, with the highest average TTHM concentration of 83.48 μg/L and a chloroform concentration of 46.06 μg/L. From the tap water samples collected from 14 Western Cape suburbs, the average TTHM concentrations ranged from 5.30 ug/L (for Mandalay) to 13.12 μg/L (for Browns Farm, Philippi), and all these concentrations were lower than the TTHM concentrations detected in the water samples from the DWTP. Overall, the average total THM and individual THM species concentrations were below the recommended SANS 241:2011 and WHO drinking water guideline limits. This included the observed pH (6.39 to 7.73), residual free chlorine (0.22 to 1.06 mg/L), conductivity (121 to 444 μS/cm), TDS (93.93 to 344.35 mg/L) and TOC (0.38 to 1.20 mg/L). All these water quality parameters were within the specification limits stipulated in SANS 241. However, the average residual free chlorine concentration for Atlantis was very low (0.06 mg/L), which was below the WHO minimum residual free chlorine concentration guideline value of 0.2 mg/L for a distribution network – an indication that suggested the need for a re-chlorination station prior to distribution to households. Low chlorine content might result in the formation of unwanted biofilms in the distribution network, thus reducing the organoleptic properties of the water. Additionally, there was no direct link between several water quality parameters quantified (i.e. pH, TOC and water temperature) to TTHM formation. However, a high chlorine dose was observed to result directly in a higher concentration of chloroform in treated water prior to distribution. The second contaminants monitored were Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), which are non-biodegradable, persistent and toxic organic chemicals known for their ability to contaminate environmental matrices, including drinking water sources. In recent years, many researchers considered it essential to identify and quantify PFC levels in drinking water worldwide with the main focus being on the two most abundant PFCs; namely Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). Their toxic effects to human health, plants and wildlife were also evaluated, classifying them as possible carcinogens. We know from the literature reviewed that, although the presence of PFCs in drinking water has been documented worldwide, there is limited information about their presence specifically in South African drinking water sources, even about less studied PFCs such as Perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), Perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoA), Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), Perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUA), Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDeA) and the well-known PFOA including PFOS. Although several other PFCs have been detected in water sources and reported in various studies, the USEPA only issued drinking water guideline limits for Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) of 400 ng/L and 200 ng/L, respectively, with no mention of the other PFCs. However, these PFCs have similar properties to those of PFOA and PFOS as they have been shown to impose similar detrimental health effects on human health. This study thus focused on the detection of PFCs in both raw and treated drinking water in the Western Cape DWTPs such as Atlantis, Blackheath, Faure, Brooklands, Steenbras, Voelvlei and Wemmershoek, and one DWDS in Plattekloof. Water samples (raw and treated water) used in this study for PFC analysis were collected in 2L polypropylene screw capped bottles. PFC analysis was performed in four sample batches for each location collected through the period of October to December 2012 (summer). PFCs were analysed in accordance with a modified EPA method 537, which entails solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by analysis using a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometer (LC/MS/MS). The slight modification was with the water sample volume used for extraction, which was increased from 250 mL to 500 mL. The instrument used was an HPLC - Ultimate 3000 Dionex HPLC system and MS model - Amazon SL Ion Trap, with the following MS/MS operational conditions and Ion mode: MS Interface → ESI; Dry temp → 350C; Nebulizing pressure → 60 psi; Dry gas flow → 10 L/min; Ionisation mode → negative; capillary voltage → +4500V; End plate offset → −500V while the separation column was a Waters Sunfire C18, 5 μm, 4.6 × 150 mm column (Supplier: Waters, Dublin, Ireland) with an operational temperature of 30C. From the results obtained in this study, seven different PFCs (i.e. PFHpA, PFDoA, PFNA, PFUA, PFDeA, PFOA and PFOS), were detected in raw and treated water with PFOA and PFOS being the least detected PFCs as they were detected only in raw water (PFOA) from Faure, as well as raw and treated water (PFOS) from Brooklands. The highest concentration observed in treated water was for PFHpA, which was quantified at a maximum average concentration of 43.80 ng/L (Plattekloof). The maximum average concentrations of other PFCs detected were as follows: PFDoA - 4.415 ng/L for Faure raw water; PFNA - 2.922 ng/L for Plattekloof outlet; PFUA - 7.965 ng/L for Brooklands treated water and PFDeA - 2.744 ng/L for Faure raw water. Another observation from the results was that the concentration of the majority of the PFCs detected in treated water was higher than that quantified in raw water, suggesting possible contamination by materials used during water treatment. In conclusion, THMs detected in treated water from various DWTPs and one DWDS in the Western Cape met the required local and international drinking water quality guidelines, while the presence of PFOS, PFOA, PFHpA, PFDoA, PFNA, PFUA and PFDeA in treated water requires that local water professionals continue to monitor their presence to ensure that measures for their reduction are in place. Furthermore, the National standards (SANS 241) for municipal drinking water guidelines must be updated to include the monitoring of PFCs, including the lesser known and less studied PFCs such as PFHpA, PFDoA, PFNA, PFUA and PFDeA.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Engineering, Durban University of Technology, 2017. / Water is an essential natural resource for human existence and survival on the earth. South Africa, a water stressed country, allocates a high percentage of its available consumptive water use to irrigation. Therefore, it is necessary that we optimize water use in order to enhance food security. This study presents the development of mathematical models for irrigation scheduling of crops, optimal irrigation water release and crop yields in Vaal Harts irrigation scheme (VIS) of South Africa. For efficient irrigation water management, an accurate estimation of reference evapotranspiration (ETₒ) should be carried out. However, due to non-availability of enough historical data for the study area, mathematical models were developed to estimate ETₒ. A 20-year monthly meteorological data was collected and analysed using two data–driven modeling techniques namely principal component analysis (PCA) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS). Furthermore, an artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed for real time prediction of future ETₒ for the study area. The real time irrigation scheduling of potatoes was developed using a crop growth simulation model called CROPWAT. It was used to determine the crop water productivity (CWP), which is a determinant of the relationship between water applied and crop yield. Finally, a new and novel evolutionary multi-objective optimization algorithm called combined Pareto multi-objective differential evolution (CPMDE) was applied to optimize irrigation water use and crop yield on the VIS farmland. The net irrigation benefit, land area and irrigation water use of maize, potatoes and groundnut were optimized. Results obtained show that ETₒ increases with temperature and windspeed. Other variables such as rainfall and relative humidity have less significance on the value of ETₒ. Also, ANN models with one hidden layer showed better predictive performance compared with other considered configurations. A 5-day time step irrigation schedule data and graphs showing the crop water requirements and irrigation water requirements was generated. This would enable farmers know when, where, and how much water to apply to a given farmland. Finally, the employed CPMDE optimization algorithm produced a set of non-dominated Pareto optimal solutions. The best solution suggests that maize, groundnut and potatoes should be planted on 403543.44 m2, 181542.00 m2 and 352876.05 m2areas of land respectively. This solution generates a total net benefit of ZAR 767,961.49, total planting area of 937961.49 m2 and irrigation water volume of 391,061.52 m3. Among the three crops optimized, maize has the greatest land area, followed by potatoes and groundnut. This shows that maize is more profitable than potatoes and groundnut with respect to crop yield and water use in the study area. / D

Thesis (DTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012. / Environmental pollution with persistent organic chemicals and inorganic trace metals is an increasingly important issue. Recently, a variety of chemicals are introduced in a very large scale on the surface water network. The main pathway of these pollutants into the environment was identified as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The extended use of chemicals in many product formulations and insufficient WWTPs has lead to an increase in the levels of the detected micro-pollutants wastewater effluents. The majority of these compounds are characterized by a rather poor biodegradability. A large spectrum of pollutants present in waste as traces has been reported to exert adverse effects on human and wildlife. Even though compounds are found in wastewater in a very small amount, they may have the undesirable capability of initiating health effect on various high forms of life. This survey constitutes the first study in the City of Cape Town to report data for a variety of priority substances (phenols and phthalate esters) in WWTP effluents and receiving rivers. These results are of critical importance since the data generated are used to generate potential health risk associated with both the organic and inorganic compounds analyzed.

Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / Bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The worsening scarcity of fresh water resources has led to an increasing number of people without sustainable access to safe water across the globe. Water privatisation has been presented as the panacea to addressing the global water crisis. Privatisation of water has heightened the impetus for the explicit recognition of water as a human right. This dissertation seeks to establish the legal status of the right to water under international human rights law. The dissertation further attempts to ascertain the scope and normative content of such a right. In order to answer these questions, this dissertation carries out a detailed analysis of the possible legal basis, scope and normative content of the right to water under international human rights law. The principal question that arises is how a State can ensure compliance with its human rights obligations in the event of involvement of non-State actors such as private corporations in the management and distribution of water services. This dissertation‘s main hypothesis is that although privatisation of water services does not relieve the State of its legal responsibility under international human rights law, such privatisation imposes certain obligations on private actors consistent with the right to water. The dissertation goes beyond articulating normative considerations and looks at implementation at the national level by highlighting good practices on the practical implementation of the right to water consistent with the normative standards imposed by the right. The dissertation‘s key contribution is its development of an accountability model to ensure that States and private actors involved in the provision of water services have clearly designated roles and responsibilities consistent with the human right to water. If properly implemented, the model has the potential to give greater specification to the normative commitments imposed by the right to water in privatisation scenarios. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verergerende skaarste van vars water bronne het aanleiding gegee tot die toename in die hoeveelheid mense sonder volhoubare toegang tot veilige water oor die hele aarde. Dit word aangevoer dat die privatisering van water die wondermiddel is om die globale water krisis aan te spreek. Die privatisering van water het aanleiding gegee tot 'n verskerpte aandrang om water uitdruklik te erken as 'n mensereg. Hierdie proefskrif poog om die regsstatus van die reg tot water te vestig binne die raamwerk van internasionale menseregte. Die proefskrif probeer verder om vas te stel wat die omvang en normatiewe inhoud van so 'n reg sal wees. Vervolgens voltrek hierdie proefskrif 'n uitvoerige analise van die moontlike regsbasis, omvang en normatiewe inhoud van die reg tot water binne die raamwerk van internasionale menseregte. Die vernaamste vraag wat opduik is hoe 'n Staat kan verseker dat sy menseregte verpligtinge nagekom word waar nie-Regeringsrolspelers soos korporasies betrokke is by die bestuur en distribusie van waterdienste. Die kern hipotese van hierdie proefskrif is dat alhoewel die privatisering van waterdienste nie die Staat verlig van sy regsverpligtinge in terme van internasionale menseregte nie, sodanige privatisering sekere verpligtinge aan privaatrolspelers voorskryf wat in lyn is met die reg op water. Hierdie proefskrif gaan verder as die artikulering van normatiewe oorwegings en kyk ook na die implementering op nasionale vlak deur goeie praktyke uit te lig met betrekking tot die prakiese implementering van die reg tot water wat konsekwent is met die normatiewe standaarde wat die reg voorskryf. Die kern bydrae van hierdie proefskrif is die ontwikkeling van 'n aanspreeklikheismodel wat versker dat Regerings en privaat rolspelers wat betrokke is by die voorsiening van waterdienste duidelik aangewysde funksies en verantwoordelikhede het wat in lyn is met die reg tot water. Indien hierdie model behoorlik implementeer word, het dit die potensiaal om grooter spesifikasie te gee aan die normatiewe verpligtinge wat deur die reg tot water voorgeskryf word in privatiserings scenarios.

Dissertation (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Municipal water distribution maintenance is very important for sustainable urban development. Water pipe breaks result not only in a disruption in service but also in significant loss of water, which otherwise could have been sold to the consumer. In countries where water is scarce, such as South Africa, water losses can be detrimental to the living standard of people. Water pipe breaks can furthermore cause extensive damage to nearby lower-lying properties. Existing decision support systems available in the field of water distribution system maintenance are mainly focused on leak detection and pipe rehabilitation/replacement strategy. These existing systems, however, do not address the actual causes of pipe breaks and pipe break impact is also not supported. The aim of this research is to develop a spatial decision support system (SDSS) for pipe break susceptibility analysis and impact assessment. The engineer (or public works administrator) can apply the SDSS to model the complex pipe break phenomena in the municipal water distribution system. The SDSS can identify pipes susceptible to breaking and pipes with potentially high break impact as far as water loss and damage caused to nearby property are concerned. This combined pipe break susceptibility analysis and potential impact assessment should promote more informed decision-making on preventative maintenance measures to be taken and their prioritisation. The dissertation consists offive parts. In the first part (Chapters 1-4) theories on information systems, fuzzy logic, object-oriented modelling, Unified Modelling Language (UML) and pipe break causes are presented. This literature review provides a basis on which the SDSS for pipe break susceptibility analysis and impact assessment can be developed. In the second part (Chapter 5) the general user requirements and design of the SDSS are given. The general SDSS architecture, the general system functionality and the user interface are described and designed in this part of the dissertation. The third part (Chapter 6) provides the detailed user requirements and design of the subsystems of the SDSS. Specialised functionality for pipe break susceptibility analysis and impact assessment is added to the general design of the SDSS. Subsystems are designed for analysing the pipe break susceptibility due to age, air-pocket formation and tree-root attack. Pipe break impact assessment subsystems are also designed for assessing water loss and potential damage caused to nearby property. Finally, a combined analysis subsystem is designed for combined pipe break susceptibility analysis and impact assessment. In the fourth part (Chapter 7), the SDSS is applied to the water distribution system of the Paarl Municipality to identify pipes in the network that have both high break susceptibility and also high break impact. The pipe break susceptibility analysis model of the SDSS is also tested and calibrated by comparing the model results with actual pipe break occurrence data of the study area. The final chapter (Chapter 8) contains the summary and recommendations regarding the functionality of the newly developed SDSS. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die instandhouding van munisipale waterverspreidingstelsels is uiters belangrik vir volhoubare stedelike ontwikkeling. Waterpypbreuke lei nie alleenlik tot onderbreking in diensverskaffing nie, maar ook tot beduidende waterverlies en verlies aan inkomste uit waterverkope. In lande waar water skaars is, soos in Suid-Afrika, kan waterverliese die lewenstandaard van die bevolking nadelig beïnvloed. Waterpypbreuke kan ook groot skade aan naby-geleë laag-liggende eiendomme aanrig. Besluitnemingstelsels tans beskikbaar op die gebied van instandhouding van waterverspreidingstelsels is hoofsaaklik gerig op lekkasie-opsporing en pyprehabilitasie- en pypvervangingstrategieë. Hierdie bestaande stelsels spreek egter nie die eintlike oorsake van pypbreuke aan nie, daar word ook nie op die impak van pypbreuke ingegaan nie. Die doelwit van hierdie navorsing is om 'n ruimtelike besluitnemingstelsel (RBS) - vir pypbreuk-risiko-analise en impakberaming te ontwikkel. Die ingenieur (of stelselbestuurder) kan met behulp van die RBS die komplekse pypbreukverskynsel in 'n munisipale waterverspreidingstelsel modelleer. Die RBS kan pype met hoë breek-potensiaal identifiseer asook pype wat, indien dit breek, groot waterverlies of skade aan naby-geleë eiendomme sal veroorsaak. Hierdie gekombineerde pypbreuk-risiko-analise en impakberaming behoort meer oordeelkundige besluitneming te bevorder deur beter prioritisering van voorkomende instandhoudingsmaatreëls en die uitvoering daarvan. Die proefskrif bestaan uit vyf dele. In die eerste deel (Hoofstukke 1-4) word die teorieë oor inligtingstelsels, 'fuzzy logic', objek-georiënteerde modellering, 'unified modelling language (UML)' en die oorsake van pypbreuke behandel. Hierdie literatuurstudie skep die basis waaruit die RBS vir pypbreukrisikobepaling en impakberaming ontwikkel sal word. In die tweede deel (Hoofstuk 5) word die algemene gebruikersbehoeftes en die ontwerp van die RBS uiteengesit. Die algemene RBS struktuur en die gebruikerskoppelvlak word in hierdie deel van die proefskrif beskryf en ontwerp. In die derde deel (Hoofstuk 6) word die gedetailleerde gebruikersbehoeftes en die ontwerp van die substelsels van die RBS uiteengesit. Gespesialiseerde funksionaliteit vir pypbreuk-risikobepaling en impakberaming is tot die algemene ontwerp van die RBS bygevoeg. Substelsels is ontwerp vir die ontleding van pypbreuk-risiko as gevolg van ouderdom, lugblaas-vorming en boomwortelaanval. Substelsels vir impakberaming is ook ontwerp om waterverlies en potensiële skade aan eiendomme vas te stel. Ten slotte word 'n gekombineerde ontledingsubstelsel vir gekombineerde pypbreuk-risikobepaling en impakberaming opgestel. In die vierde deel (Hoofstuk 7) word die RBS toegepas op die waterverspreidingstelsel van die Paarlse munisipaliteit om pype uit te ken wat beide 'n hoë breuk-risiko en 'n hoë breuk-impak bevat. Die pypbreuk-analise model van die RBS is ook getoets en gekalibreer deur die resultate van die model te vergelyk met data van werklike pypbreuke in die studiegebied. Die laaste hoofstuk (Hoofstuk 8) bevat die samevatting en die aanbevelings rakende die funksionaliteit van die voorgestelde RBS.

This research has undertaken two key mandates. One was to develop modifications to the African Catchment Game (ACG), a role playing simulation game, in order to simulate rainfall and water management processes representative of the southern African context. The other was to understand what, if any, learning associated with water management issues had taken place as a result of playing the ACG. The modification process took the form of an action research process. The initial modifications were trialed with South African students as part of their undergraduate Geography course offered at Rhodes University, South Africa. Subsequent modifications were implemented over a five month period with three diverse participant groups, namely Finnish, American and South African participants. An interpretive research orientation was employed in order to analyse both the qualitative and quantitative data that was generated. Pre- and Post-Game Questionnaires were used in order to identify the learning and understanding which the participants constructed as a result of playing the ACG. The Chi-Square Test was also applied to each of the pre- and post- questions to establish statistical significance. Subsequent analysis of these questions identified and traced patters and trends associated with learning and understanding across the three game runs. This research study draws on social constructivism and experiential learning as the dominant education theory that underpins it. Results revealed that for all three game runs learning took place. Participants identified dominant themes and environmental dimensions both before and after playing the ACG. The analysis of these responses indicated a deeper awareness of water as a contributing factor for sustainable economic development while the game runs enabled the researcher to adjust the water availability within each game run until rainfall and water management processes representative of a southern African context were successfully simulated in the last game run.

Emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) have been the focus of global environmental research for over three decades. EOCs have caused widespread concern due to their extensive use. As EOCs were designed to correct, enhance or protect a specific physiological, their target effects in humans and/or farm stocks are relatively well known and documented. However, there is limited knowledge about their unintended effects in the environment. To address the occurrence, distribution and fate of EOCs in the environment, efficient and reliable analytical methods are needed. The relatively low concentration, high polarity, and thermal lability of some EOCs, together with their interaction with complex environmental matrices, make their analysis challenging. Sample preparation followed by GC or HPLC separation and mass spectrometry (MS) detection has become the standard approach for evaluating EOCs in environmental samples. Physicochemical properties of EOCs range from highly water-soluble (hydrophylic) to highly water-insoluble (hydrophobic). Two groups of these EOCs were considered for study in this work. Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) were comprehensively studied in five wastewater treatment plants and their receiving watersheds in Amathole districts in Eastern C ape, South Africa. PPCPs have been widely reported in wastewater influents, effluents, receiving rivers and biosolids, but reports of their occurrence in all these matrixes have been limited by the difficulty of analysis. Therefore, a comprehensive validation of methods was carried out on the influents, effluents, sludge and soil from the irrigated golf course where the effluent of one of the study sites was being used for over three decades now for irrigation. In all, thirteen PPCPs from five therapeutic groups were selected for study in this work because of their administering rate and availability of analytical instrument. Good limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were achieved for the method used. The LOD for the aqueous Three different technologies were employed for the treatment of wastewater in the five selected wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and study was carried out to evaluate their ability to eliminate the selected compounds from the influents to the effluents using statistical analysis (ANOVA) at p<0.05 on the percentage removal rate across the three plants. The results had shown eight of the compounds having no significant difference among the treatment operations, whereas the remaining five compounds varied significantly among the treatment technologies under investigation. Principal component analysis was performed on the concentration of PPCPs, their removal rate and also on the physicochemical and treatment operation parameters. Hydraulic retention time (HRT) had correlation coefficient, r = 0.90 with the concentration of PPCPs and removal rates. Furthermore, occurrences, seasonal variation, mean concentration distribution pattern of the compounds, and temporal evaluation of the mean concentration of the pharmaceutical compounds in the five WWTPs during one year of sampling were considered. The results revealed that five products which were diclofenac, ibuprofen, paracetamol, triclosan and diethyl toluamide (DDET) were predominant among the PPCPs in all the WWTPs. The removal efficiency was highest in caffeine with 96 percent, and the lowest was obtained with carbamazepine (4 percent). Risk quotient of the concentration of PPCPs in the effluents and receiving waters was determined to assess their chronic toxicity at three trophic levels: fish, algae and matrixes studied ranged from 0.01 μg/L to 0.25 μg/L, and the LOQ from 0.02 μg/L to 0.78 μg/L. In the solid matrixes, LOD varied from 0.01 ng/g to 0.65 ng/g, and the LOQ between 0.08 ng/g and 5.17 ng/g. Better recovery efficiency was obtained with this mixture of solvents, acetone: dichloromethane (1:1), for the recovery of the five therapeutic groups in the solid matrixes using ultrasonication- assisted techniques. The results show percentage recovery values ranging from 68.8 percent to 107.5 percent diaphian. According to the environmental risk assessment results, ibuprofen and triclosan were found to be the most critical compounds due to their high risk quotient values. These findings will, therefore, help in the future evaluation of the efficiency of different treatment technologies in the removal of various PPCPs from the wastewater and their sustainable management in the aquatic resources in Eastern Cape, South Africa. For the lipophilic organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), the limits of detection (LODs) of the tested congeners varied from 0.04 ng/g (α-BHC) to 0.49 ng/g (endosulfan sulfate) and the limits of quantification ranging from 0.22 ng/g (aldrin) to 2.17 ng/g (δ-BHC).