Eutrophication is a nutrient enrichment of dams and lakes. Increased eutrophication in dams results in blooms of cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are troublesome as they form massive surface scums, impart taste and odour to the water. Some strains of cyanobacteria such as Microcystis aeruginosa are dangerous to humans and animals. They produce toxins that can kill animals drinking the contaminated water and have also been implicated in human illnesses. The study investigated the effectiveness of techniques deployed in controlling cyanobacterial growth in Rietvlei, Roodeplaat and Hartbeespoort Dams. This was done by interpreting data from April 2010 to March 2012. The conditions in the three dams show that Microcystis produced toxins in the summer season and all the variables analysed were favourable for the production of toxins. The methods deployed to rehabilitate the dams do not completely solve the problems of toxins experienced by the dams. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Eutrophication is a nutrient enrichment of dams and lakes. Increased eutrophication in dams results in blooms of cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are troublesome as they form massive surface scums, impart taste and odour to the water. Some strains of cyanobacteria such as Microcystis aeruginosa are dangerous to humans and animals. They produce toxins that can kill animals drinking the contaminated water and have also been implicated in human illnesses. The study investigated the effectiveness of techniques deployed in controlling cyanobacterial growth in Rietvlei, Roodeplaat and Hartbeespoort Dams. This was done by interpreting data from April 2010 to March 2012. The conditions in the three dams show that Microcystis produced toxins in the summer season and all the variables analysed were favourable for the production of toxins. The methods deployed to rehabilitate the dams do not completely solve the problems of toxins experienced by the dams. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Water is a symbol of life. It affects all organisms on earth and its importance is emphasised in times of drought. The human population growth places more demands on our natural resources. As pressures on the available water increases, more measures are required to utilise water sustainably. South Africa is classified as a water stressed country with less than 1700 cubic meters of water available per person per year. Rand Water supplies water to approximately 11 million people in Gauteng. During times of drought, restrictions imposed are aimed mainly at the broader Green Industry. This research investigated international strategies, existing restrictions in Gauteng, and undertook a survey within the Green Industry to determine the most appropriate response. This research proposes a new water supply shortage response plan for Rand Water in Gauteng with a total of four levels of restrictions implemented at different stages of water stress in the system. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Steroid hormones belong to a group of compounds known as endocrine disruptors. They are hydrophobic compounds and are categorized as natural and synthetic estrogens. Some common household products have been implicated as estrogen mimics. Exposure effects of these compounds are felt by human and wildlife, such reproductive alterations in fish and frogs. They mainly introduced into the environment through veterinary medicines administration to animals and the discharges from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, a new alternative analytical procedure that is simple, rapid and fast for the determination and quantification of five steroidal hormones: estriol (E3), beta estradiol (β-E2), alpha estradiol (α-E2), testosterone (T), progesterone (P) and bisphenol A (BPA) using the High pressure liquid chromatography coupled to a charged aerosol detector (HPLC-CAD). These compounds were studied because of their strong endocrine-disrupting effects in the environment. Under optimum conditions, a linear graph was obtained with correlation coefficient (R2) ranging from 0.9952 - 0.9996. The proposed method was applied to the analysis of water samples from a wastewater plant and the results obtained were satisfactory. The limits of detection (LOD) for the target analytes in wastewater influent was between 0.0002 – 0.0004 μg/L and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.001 μg/L respectively for each of the analytes. Enrichment factors of 148- 258, and extraction efficiency 84- 102% were obtained for the target analytes; relative standard deviations (% RSD) for m = 6 were between 2.8 and 7.6%. The concentration of the EDCs in environment sample was between 0.2 - 2.3 μg/L. / Chemistry / M. Sc. (Chemistry)

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / This study gives an overview of the sustainability of potable water supply in rural areas of South Africa in general and four rural areas of uMhlathuze in particular. Three key challenges in achieving sustainable rural water supply are discussed in more detail and later on used to evaluate the inadequacy of financial revenues to cover the full operation, maintenance and replacement of infrastructure. This research study analysed the factors pertaining to the tariff structure used in maintaining and sustaining rendered service. It analysed the current tariff structure that includes the poorest and most marginalised in line with revenue needed to cover recurrence costs. It was the purpose of this study to examine the adequacy of the management system used to sustain the supply of potable water in rural areas, taking into cognisance the costs of rendering the account and of illegal connections combined with high water losses. The study also attempted to link these points to the challenges faced by the rural areas. The sustainability of rural water supply was analysed, based on financial factors, affordability and on the willingness to pay for the service. The researcher first compared the water billing (levies) and payment patterns of each customer in rural areas of uMhlathuze Municipality with others; and secondly, compared the primary data against theory and the literature. Differences and similarities between the collected data and theory were at the core of the analysis The research results determined that the municipality has the capacity to maintain and sustain the potable water supply network in these areas, while dealing with management questions and recommending to management what is needed to ensure that the water reticulation system is run on a sustainable basis. Sustainability of rural water supply seems to be dependent on factors like policy, legal framework and economic factors such as an ability to meet the costs and willingness to pay for rendered service.

Steroid hormones belong to a group of compounds known as endocrine disruptors. They are hydrophobic compounds and are categorized as natural and synthetic estrogens. Some common household products have been implicated as estrogen mimics. Exposure effects of these compounds are felt by human and wildlife, such reproductive alterations in fish and frogs. They mainly introduced into the environment through veterinary medicines administration to animals and the discharges from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, a new alternative analytical procedure that is simple, rapid and fast for the determination and quantification of five steroidal hormones: estriol (E3), beta estradiol (β-E2), alpha estradiol (α-E2), testosterone (T), progesterone (P) and bisphenol A (BPA) using the High pressure liquid chromatography coupled to a charged aerosol detector (HPLC-CAD). These compounds were studied because of their strong endocrine-disrupting effects in the environment. Under optimum conditions, a linear graph was obtained with correlation coefficient (R2) ranging from 0.9952 - 0.9996. The proposed method was applied to the analysis of water samples from a wastewater plant and the results obtained were satisfactory. The limits of detection (LOD) for the target analytes in wastewater influent was between 0.0002 – 0.0004 μg/L and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.001 μg/L respectively for each of the analytes. Enrichment factors of 148- 258, and extraction efficiency 84- 102% were obtained for the target analytes; relative standard deviations (% RSD) for m = 6 were between 2.8 and 7.6%. The concentration of the EDCs in environment sample was between 0.2 - 2.3 μg/L. / Chemistry / M. Sc. (Chemistry)

Ongoing concerns about the efficient and sustainable utilisation of South Africa’s water resources have resulted in much interest regarding the water use of different land uses within a catchment. Research has been focussed on water use by different dryland vegetation, in particular commercial forestry which has been declared a Stream Flow Reduction Activity for which a water use license is required for production. Consequently, concerns about the water use of other dryland crops have lead to a need to quantify water use by other land uses, particularly sugarcane. In this document, previous research focussed on water use by sugarcane is reviewed and summarised, together with an experiment where an energy balance approach has been used to quantify water consumption in the form of total evaporation for an area of sugarcane production in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands with an assessment of the seasonal variability of this water consumption for a period of 1 year. The study was performed using a Large Aperture Scintillometer to measure sensible heat flux, whilst all other energy balance components, as well as rainfall, soil moisture and other climatic data were obtained using standard methods. Total evaporation was estimated from latent heat flux which was derived as a residual of the energy balance. Total evaporation varies over the year with substantially higher values occurring in summer in response to high energy and water availability. Over the year, the crop used approximately 630mm of water which equates to 53% of rainfall at the site. The two main factors affecting the seasonal variability of water use by sugarcane are net radiation and soil moisture content. In the wetter months when soil moisture is readily available, net radiation limits total evaporation. In the drier months, soil moisture is not as readily available, and limits total evaporation. Air temperature and relative humidity proved to also be important considerations in their effect on total evaporation. The total evaporation estimates obtained could be compared to a baseline (grassland) and used in simulations for a better understanding of the stream flow reduction potential of sugarcane and the seasonal variability thereof. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc (Food Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Agriculture in the Western Cape is not only one of the most important economic sectors but also provides many job opportunities. Over the last few years the sustainability of this successful industry has become threatened by the faecal pollution of rivers used to irrigate produce that will be consumed raw or after minimal processing. This situation not only poses an enormous risk to the health of the consumer but also to farmers who stand to lose their export licenses. The purpose of this study was to determine the microbial types and loads in river water, irrigation water and on irrigated produce. A baseline study was done on four sites in two Western Cape rivers. These sites were chosen to allow for the sampling of river water, irrigation water and irrigated produce so as to determine whether a link between the use of contaminated irrigation water and the microbial population found on irrigated produce exists. The physico-chemical analyses used in the study consisted of: pH, alkalinity, water temperature, conductivity and chemical oxygen demand. The microbial monitoring included the aerobic colony counts (ACC) and the enumeration of the total coliforms, faecal coliforms, staphylococci, enterococci, and aerobic and anaerobic sporeformers present in the water samples. The presence or absence of the potential pathogens like E. coli, Listeria and Salmonella, was also determined. During the baseline study faecal coliform counts as high as 160 000 organisms.100 mL-1 were noted in the Plankenburg River, while counts as high as 460 000 organisms.100 mL-1 were found in the Mosselbank River. Apart from this, high numbers of staphylococci and intestinal enterococci were often found, while E. coli, Listeria and Salmonella were present in samples from both of these rivers. Based on the results of the baseline study on the two rivers it was decided to do a more intensive study on the microbial load of the river and irrigation water as well as irrigated produce from the Mosselbank site. Lettuce and cabbages from a commercial farmer’s fields were chosen as the irrigated produce. During the warmer summer months, ACC counts in the river samples peaked at 12 8000 000 cfu.mL-1, while faecal coliform counts of 1 600 000 organisms.100 mL-1 were found. The three potential pathogens (E. coli, Listeria and Salmonella) were present in all the river samples taken during this period. While the counts of indicator bacteria in the irrigation water was often lower, faecal coliform counts as high as 1 600 000 organisms.100 mL-1 and several other potential pathogens were found on the irrigated lettuce and cabbage. This could indicate a possible “build-up” of contamination on the produce with the repeated application of the tainted irrigation water. According to guidelines published by DWAF in 2008, water to be used for irrigation should not contain more than 4 000 organisms.100 mL-1 faecal coliforms if it is used for the irrigation of crops that are to be consumed raw or after a minimal processing step, as this would increase the health risk to the consumer. Guidelines published by the South African Department of Health are even stricter and state that raw vegetables and fruit should not contain more than 200 coliform organisms per gram, while E. coli and L. monocytogenes should be absent in one gram, and Salmonella spp. in 25 grams of the produce, respectively. From the data obtained during this study it was evident that the two rivers monitored regularly contained faecal indicators at levels much higher than those proposed in national and international guidelines for safe irrigation, making them unfit for the irrigation of MPF’s. It could be concluded that the rivers investigated during this study contained high levels of faecal contamination. Since some of the pathogens isolated from the river and irrigation water and the irrigated produce, it suggests a carry-over of microbial contamination from the river water to the irrigated produce. This was, however, only done using the traditional international methods and the presence of specific pathogens should in future be confirmed by means of molecular techniques. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Landbou is nie net die een van die belangrikste ekonomiese sektore in die Wes-Kaap nie, maar verskaf ook vele werksgeleenthede. Oor die afgelope paar jaar word die volhoubaarheid van hierdie suksesvolle industrie egter bedreig deur die fekale kontaminasie van riviere wat gebruik word vir die besproeiing van voedsel wat rou of na ‘n minimale prosesserings stap ingeneem word. Hierdie situasie hou nie net ‘n groot gevaar vir die gesondheid van verbruikers in nie, maar ook vir boere wat hul uitvoerlisensies hierdeur kan verloor. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die ladings en tipes mikrobes in rivier water, besproeiingswater en op besproeide produkte vas te stel. ‘n Basiese studie van vier liggings in twee Wes-Kaapse riviere is gedoen. Hierdie liggings is só gekies dat dit moontlik was om die rivier water, besproeiingswater en die besproeide produkte te monitor, en daar sodoende vasgestel kon word of daar ‘n verhouding is tussen die gebruik van gekontamineerde besproeiingswater en die mikrobe populasie wat op die besproeide produkte aanwesig was. Die fisiko-chemiese analises wat gedurende die studie gedoen is, het pH, alkaliniteit, water temperatuur, geleidingsvermoë en die chemiese suurstof vereiste (COD) ingesluit. Die mikrobiese analises het die aërobe kolonie tellings (ACC) en die enumerasie van die totale kolivorme, fekale kolivorme, staphylococci, enterococci en die aërobe en anaërobe spoorvormers ingesluit. Daar is ook vir die aanwesigheid van potensiële patogene soos E. coli, Listeria en Salmonella getoets. Gedurende die basiese studie is fekale kolovorme tellings van so hoog as 160 000 organismes.100mL-1 in die Plankenburg Rivier aangeteken, terwyl tellings van so hoog as 460 000 organismes.100mL-1 in die Mosselbank Rivier gevind is. Hoë tellings stafielokokki en intestinale enterokokki is gereeld genoteer, terwyl E.coli, Listeria en Salmonella uit die waters van beide hierdie riviere geïsoleer is. Gebaseer op hierdie resultate is daar besluit om ‘n meer intensiewe studie van die rivier, besproeiingswater en die besproeide produkte van die Mosselbank Rivier te doen. Blaarslaai en kool van ‘n kommersiële boer se lande is vir hierdie doel gekies. Gedurende die warmer somer maande het die aërobe kolonie tellings in die rivier ‘n piek van 12 800 000 kve.mL-1 bereik, terwyl fekale kolivorme tellings van 1 600 000 organismes.100mL-1 genoteer is. Die drie potensiële patogene (E. coli, Listeria en Salmonella) was aanwesig in al die monsters wat gedurende hierdie tydperk van die rivierwater geneem is. Alhoewel die tellings indikator bakterieë in die besproeiingswater meestal laag was, is tellings fekale kolivorme van so hoog as 1 600 000 kve.100mL-1 en verskeie ander potensiële patogene op die besproeide blaarslaai en kool gevind. Dit kan dui op ‘n moontlike opbou van kontaminasie op die produkte met die herhaalde besproeiing met gekontamineerde besproeiingswater. Volgens die riglyne wat in 2008 deur DWAF gepubliseer is, mag water wat vir die besproeiing van minimaal geprosesseerdevoedsels gebruik word nie meer as 4 000 organismes.100mL-1 bevat nie, aangesien dit die gesondheid van die gebruiker in gevaar mag stel. Die riglyne van die Suid-Afrikaanse Departement van Gesondheid is selfs strenger en beveel aan dat rou vrugte en groente nie meer as 200 kolivorme en geen L. monocytogenes per gram, en geen Salmonella spp. in 25 g van die produk mag bevat nie. Vanuit die data wat tydens hierdie studie ingesamel is, is dit duidelik dat die twee riviere gereeld fekale indikators bevat het teen vlakke baie hoër as wat in die nasionale en internasionale riglyne aanbeveel word. Hierdie water is dus nie geskik vir die besproeiing van minimaal geprosesseerde produkte nie. Die afleiding kan gemaak word dat die riviere wat tydens hierdie studie gemonitor is, hoë vlakke van fekale kontaminasie bevat het. Aangesien sommige van die patogene vanuit beide die rivier- en besproeiingswater, en vanaf die besproeide produkte geïsoleer is, kan dit dui op ‘n moontlike oordrag van mikrobiese kontaminasie vanuit die rivierwater na die besproeide produkte. Tydens hierdie studie is daar egter net van die tradisionele internasionale metodes gebruik gemaak. Vir toekomstige navorsing word dit aanbeveel dat die aanwesigheid van die spesifieke patogene deur die gebruik van molekulêre metodes bevestig word.

Water is a symbol of life. It affects all organisms on earth and its importance is emphasised in times of drought. The human population growth places more demands on our natural resources. As pressures on the available water increases, more measures are required to utilise water sustainably. South Africa is classified as a water stressed country with less than 1700 cubic meters of water available per person per year. Rand Water supplies water to approximately 11 million people in Gauteng. During times of drought, restrictions imposed are aimed mainly at the broader Green Industry. This research investigated international strategies, existing restrictions in Gauteng, and undertook a survey within the Green Industry to determine the most appropriate response. This research proposes a new water supply shortage response plan for Rand Water in Gauteng with a total of four levels of restrictions implemented at different stages of water stress in the system. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Climate change and variability have great impact on the hydrological cycle and consequently on the availability of water resources. Variations in temperature and precipitation trends that are occurring are a consequent of the increase in the concentrations of greenhouse gases, which are subsequently affecting the hydrological cycle. This in turn affects water quantity and quality, which is essential for agriculture, domestic and industrial uses. This study, done in Elliot Town and the surrounding areas of Sakhisizwe Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, evaluates how climate change and variability is affecting water availability and its quality in the town. The impact climate change and variability on agricultural production is also assessed. Remote Sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), databases and some statistical packages have been used to collect, analyse and create spatial maps used to derive concrete conclusions. The methods used aided in spatially analysing the changes in temperature and rainfall along the years and make a comparative analysis. The study has shown that the spatial changes in the amount, intensity and frequency of rainfall affects the magnitude and frequency of stream flows; consequently, increasing the intensity of floods and droughts that have been recurring in the last few decades. The municipality is more affected by climate variability than change, and the resultant extreme climate events are affecting the water resources resulting in domestic water cuts, poor water quality and low agriculture productivity. This study recommends the importance of an awareness campaigns on climate change and variability and their effect directed towards the community, especially on novel water harvesting technologies. The study also highlights the importance of a robust early warning system to prepare the community in case of a climate shock, which is an area that needs further research. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)