A pressão exercida sobre os recursos hídricos nas ultimas décadas, principalmente por setores como irrigação, abastecimento público, indústria e geração de energia tem sido um dos principais fatores para ampliar as bases de discussão sobre a importância da manutenção de uma parcela de água nos rios para garantir a sua integridade ecológica. Vazão ecológica foi o termo utilizado neste trabalho para definir a parcela a ser mantida nos cursos d’água, para esse fim. Dessa forma, este trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar as limitações do critério de vazão ecológica do Estado do Tocantins, tendo como estudo de caso as Pequenas Centrais Hidrelétricas - PCHs Agrotrafo e Palmeiras na bacia hidrográfica do rio Palmeiras-TO, a qual reúne condições adequadas para o escopo do trabalho, além de ser o único dos sete aproveitamentos hidrelétricos do rio Palmeiras a gerar energia a partir de um Trecho de Vazão Reduzida – TVR, é atualmente a bacia com maior vocação para a geração de energia no Estado. Para alcançar o objetivo proposto para o trabalho, a metodologia foi dividida em três etapas: a) levantamento das características das PCHs Agrotrafo e Palmeiras, b) levantamento da caracterização e limites de uso e manutenção de água na bacia, c) disponibilidade de informações hidrológicas a serem utilizadas. A partir da aplicação da metodologia foi possível identificar quatro categorias de limitações: i) limitações de ordem hidrológica, neste caso como a vazão de referência para outorga é um valor fixo com base na Q90, em determinadas épocas do ano, inclusive em período de cheia, a vazão natural é menor que a Q90; ii) limitações de ordem econômica, que indicam que caso o órgão outorgante estadual resolva seguir com rigor o que estabelece o critério de vazão ecológica, onde cada usuário tem direito de captar 25% de 75% da Q90 haveria uma drástica redução da energia a ser gerada em Agrotrafo e Palmeiras, podendo tornar o aproveitamento inviável economicamente; iii) limitações de ordem ambiental, considerando que a vazão ecológica com base em um valor fixo não leva em consideração aspectos da sazonalidade do regime de vazões, podendo haver um intenso desequilíbrio, principalmente no TVR, afetando hábitos alimentares e de migração espécies de peixes e organismos aquáticos, bem como comunidades ribeirinhas, aspectos paisagísticos e prática de esportes de corredeiras; e, iv) limitações de ordem legal ao não estabelecer uma solução operacional viável quando há disputa entre usuários, principalmente quanto à ordem de prioridade dos usos. / The pressure on the water resources in the last decades, mainly by sectors as irrigation, utility, industry and energy generation have been one of the main factors to enlarge the basis for discussion about the importance of maintaining a portion of water in rivers to ensure its ecological integrity. Ecological flow was the term used in this work to define that portion to be maintained in watercourses. That way, this work is aiming to evaluate the criteria limitations for ecological flow in Tocantins, taking as a case study on the Small Hydroelectric Centrals – “Agrotrafo” and “Palmeiras” in Palmeiras – TO river watershed, which meets appropriate conditions for the work scope, besides being the only one of seven hydropower recoveries in Palmeiras river, to generate energy from a reduced flow section – RFS, and nowadays it`s the watershed with greater vocation for energy generation in Tocantins. To achieve the proposed goal for the work, the methodology was divided into three stages: a) characteristics survey of SHC – “Agrotrafo” and “Palmeiras”; b) characterization survey, use limits and water maintenance in the watershed; c) availability of hydrologic information to be used. From the methodology application was possible to identify four limitations categories: i) hydrologic limitations, in this case as the flow reference for the grant is a fixed value based on “Q90”, at certain times of the year, including in flood times, the natural flow is less than “Q90”; ii) Economic limitations, indicating that if the state licensing agency decides to follow rigorously what establishes the criteria for ecological flow, where each user is entitled to capture 25% of 75% from “Q90” would be a drastic energy reduction to be generated in “Agrotrafo” and “Palmeiras”, can make use uneconomical; iii) Environmental limitations, considering that the ecological flow based on a fixed value does not consider flow regime seasonality, there may be an intense imbalance especially in RFS, affecting feeding habits and migration, fish species and aquatic organisms, as well as riparian communities, landscapes features and river sports; and iv) legal limitations by failing to establish a viable operational solution when there is contention among users, especially regarding the order of uses priority.

La thèse propose une approche originale pour évaluer les évolutions à moyen terme des équilibres entre usages et ressources en eau à l’échelle de bassins versants. Un cadre de modélisation intégrant les dynamiques hydro-climatiques et des activités humaines ainsi que les liens entre demandes et ressources en eau a été développé et appliqué sur deux bassins d’échelles différentes et aux usages de l’eau contrastés : l’Hérault (2500 km2, France) et l’Ebre (85000 km2, Espagne). Les écoulements naturels ont été simulés avec un modèle hydrologique conceptuel et un modèle de gestion de barrage piloté par les demandes associées et les contraintes de gestion a été implémenté. Les demandes en eau municipal, industrielle et d'irrigation ont été estimées à partir de données socio-economiques, agronomiques et climatiques. Des débits environnementaux seuils, en-dessous desquels les prélèvements sont limités, ont été pris en compte. La chaîne de modélisation a été calée et validée sous les conditions anthropiques et hydro-climatiques non-stationnaires de 40 années passées, avant d’être appliquée sous quatre combinaisons de scénarios de changements climatiques et d’usages de l’eau, permettant ainsi de différencier les impacts climatiques et anthropiques. Des simulations climatiques de l’exercice CMIP5 ont été utilisées pour générer 18 scénarios climatiques à l’horizon 2050, et un scénario tendanciel des usages de l’eau a été proposé sur la base de tendances socio-écononomiques locales. La disponibilité en eau a été comparée à la demande à travers des indicateurs de fréquence et d’intensité de satisfaction. L'impact des scénarios climatiques sur la disponibilité et la demande en eau pourrait remettre en question les allocations et débits environnementaux envisagés pour les décennies à venir. Les limitations de prélèvements pourraient devenir pus fréquentes, et la pression anthropique sur les milieux aquatiques pourrait s'intensifier. Pour évaluer le potentiel d’adaptation aux changements climatiques, une analyse de sensibilité des indicateurs aux principaux facteurs d’évolution de la demande et de la gestion de barrages a été réalisée. L’efficacité et la robustesse de mesures individuelles varient entre les bassins et selon les nœuds de demande. Un scénario d’adaptation combinant différentes mesures a ensuite été testé. Ce scénario pourrait réduire sensiblement le stress hydriquel, cependant sa robustesse vis-à-vis des incertitudes climatiques pourrait être insuffisante. Afin d'atteindre un équilibre durable entre usages et ressources en eau et de réduire la vulnerabilité des usages de l'eau, une complémentarité doit être trouvée entre des études quantitatives à l'échelle de bassins versants, comme celle menée dans cette thèse, et des études locales de la vulnérablité socio-économique et des capacités d'adaptation. / This thesis proposes an original approach to assess multi-decadal changes in the balance between water use and availability in managed river basins. A modeling framework integrating human and hydro-climatic dynamics and accounting for linkages between resource and demand was developed and applied in two basins of different scales and with contrasted water uses: the Herault (2500 km2, France) and the Ebro (85000 km2, Spain) basins. Natural streamflow was evaluated using a conceptual hydrological model, and a demand-driven reservoir management model was designed to account for streamflow regulations from the main dams. Urban, industrial and agricultural water demands were estimated from socio-economic and agronomic and climatic drivers. Environmental flows were accounted for by defining streamflow thresholds under which water withdrawals were strictly limited. This framework was successfully calibrated and validated under non-stationary human and hydro-climatic conditions over a past period of 40 years before being applied under four combinations of climatic and water use scenarios to differentiate the impacts of climate- and human-induced changes on streamflow and water balance. Climate simulations from the CMIP5 exercise were used to generate 18 climate scenarios at the 2050 horizon and a trend water use scenario was built based on demographic and local socio-economic trends by the mid-21textsuperscript{st}century. Indicators comparing water supply to demand were computed. The impact of the tested climate projections on both water availability and demand could question the water allocations and environmental requirements currently planned for the coming decades. Water shortages for human use could become more frequent and intense, and the pressure on water resources and aquatic ecosystems could intensify. To assess the efficiency of potential adaptation measures under climate change scenarios, the sensitivity of water stress to variations in the main drivers of water demand and dam management was tested. The effectiveness and robustness of individual measures varied between the basins and within each basin. Finally an adaptation scenario combining different measures was tested in both basins, using the integrative modeling framework. This scenario led to encouraging results regarding the decrease of water stress. However, the adaptation strategies were shown to be insufficiently robust to climate change uncertainties. To achieve a sustainable balance between water availability and demand and reduce the vulnerability of water uses to climate change, a complementarity needs to be found between basin-scale studies of the water balance, such as the ones conducted in this thesis, and local assessments of vulnerability and adaptive capacity.

O trabalho de pesquisa teve como referência o ano de 2011 e foi realizado na área da Barragem do Arroio Taquarembó, no Município de Dom Pedrito – RS. Esta região está localizada na microrregião da Campanha Gaúcha, inserida na Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Santa Maria. O problema de pesquisa refere-se à possibilidade da cobrança pelo uso da água provocar um aumento significativo nos custos de produção da lavoura de arroz, inviabilizando sistemas de produção. Neste sentido, buscou-se identificar as possíveis mudanças no desempenho econômico dos sistemas de produção, com a implantação da cobrança pelo uso da água. A caracterização dos sistemas de produção agrícola foi realizada utilizando-se questionário, aplicado em todas as unidades de produção agrícola da área de estudo. Com as informações obtidas sobre a estrutura de produção, recursos humanos, financeiros e dos gastos e receitas na safra 2011, foram calculados indicadores de desempenho econômico. Para cada unidade de produção agrícola, foi determinado o consumo de água na lavoura de Arroz. O preço do metro cúbico de água foi obtido a partir de valores simulados por modelo matemático desenvolvido, especificamente, para a Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Santa Maria. A partir do preço da água, foi determinado o custo de cada unidade de produção agrícola, em função do volume de água consumido. Após a inclusão deste novo custo de produção, foram recalculados todos os indicadores de desempenho econômico. Na sequência, foram realizadas análises estatísticas, visando identificar a existência de relação entre o estabelecimento da cobrança pelo uso da água e variações nos indicadores de desempenho econômico. As variações identificadas não foram estatisticamente significativas. Esta condição possibilitou concluir, para a região analisada, que a cobrança pelo uso da água pode não ser eficiente como desestímulo ao desperdício, pois não gera significativos impactos negativos na renda final dos produtores. Da mesma forma, também relativiza o argumento que a cobrança pelo uso da água inviabiliza a produção orizícola, pelo aumento excessivo dos custos de produção. / The research happened in 2011 at the Dam Arroyo Taquarembó, in Dom Pedrito - RS. This region is located in the micro Campaign Gaúcha inserted into the Santa Maria Basin River. The research problem concerns the possibility of charging for the water use caused a significant increase in production of the costs of the rice crop, preventing production systems. Therefore, to identify possible changes in the economic performance of production systems, with the deployment of charging for the water use. The characterization of agricultural production systems was conducted using a questionnaire applied to all agricultural production units of the researched area. With the information about the structure of production, human resources, and financial costs and revenues in 2011, it was calculated indicators of economic performance. For each unit of agricultural production, was given water consumption in rice farming. The price of a cubic meter of water was obtained from values simulated by a mathematical model developed, specifically, for the Santa Maria Basin River. From the price of water it was determined the cost of each unit of agricultural production, due to the volume of consumed water. After the inclusion of this new production costs it was recalculated all the indicators of economic performance. Further, statistical analyzes were performed in order to identify the existence of a relationship between the establishment of the charging for water use and the variations in economic performance indicators. The identified variations were not statistically significant. This condition allowed concluding, for the analyzed region, that the charging for water use may not be as effective disincentive to waste, because it does not generate significant negative impacts on the final income of producers. In this way, it wasn’t significant that the argument of the charging for water prevents the production of rice and the excessive increase of production costs, wasn´t significant.

Les retenues collinaires connaissent un essor dans les zones semi-arides pour leur capacité à réduire l'érosion et l'envasement de barrages, et à mobiliser des ressources pour la petite agriculture. Face aux incertitudes sur la faible valorisation de ces ressources et au manque de données sur le potentiel hydrique de ces aménagements, les disponibilités en eau de multiples retenues collinaires sont quantifiées à l'aide d'observations hydrologiques, modélisation numérique et télédétection. Un indice MNDWI appliqué à 546 images Landsat et combiné avec un modèle GR4J+bilan hydrique à l'aide d'un filtre de Kalman d'ensemble est développé pour estimer les disponibilités en eau entre 1999 et 2014 de 50 retenues dans le bassin amont du Merguellil, Tunisie Centrale. Les erreurs sur la disponibilité moyenne journalière sont de l'ordre de 10 000 m3 sur des retenues aux capacités initiales variant de 20 000 m3 à plus de 1 000 000 m3 et permirent de quantifier et caractériser le potentiel hydrique de chaque retenue en saison sèche. En parallèle, la combinaison d'inventaires, d'enquêtes agricoles et entretiens ethnographiques permit de recenser l'hétérogénéité des pratiques, caractériser les bénéfices des retenues et éclairer les contraintes additionnelles freinant l'exploitation agricole. Au delà de prélèvements limités, cette approche multi-échelle permet d'apporter des éclairages sur la diversification des pratiques agricoles, sur les bénéfices indirects (citernes, élevage, recharge de puits), et sur l'intérêt porté par les riverains pour cette ressource, au sens large du terme. La confrontation entre les pratiques et le potentiel hydrologique confirme que la disponibilité en eau est un facteur limitant sur 80% des retenues mais rarement suffisant pour expliquer les disparités inter et intra retenues observées. La majorité des agriculteurs ont été inhibés par des problèmes d'accès à l'eau (d'ordre économique mais également politique) et ne sont pas équipés de stratégies permettant de composer avec la forte variabilité. Les quelques succès recensés sont le fruit d'entreprises individuelles, possédant un capital et une résilience économique, leur permettant notamment de surmonter les pénuries à l'aide d'autres ressources économiques (pour acheter des citernes) ou physiques (accès à d'autres points d'eau). Une approche intégrée et un appui sur le long terme de l'état auraient pu favoriser un développement plus large et équitable des ressources. Au vu des capacités limitées et des sécheresses durables, les retenues collinaires dans ce contexte climatique doivent cependant maintenir leur objectif initial d'irrigation de complément et non chercher à soutenir une intensification à plus grande échelle de l'agriculture. / Small reservoirs and other water and soil conservation techniques have become increasingly widespread across semi-arid regions, due to their ability to reduce transportation of eroded soil and harvest scarce and unreliable rainfall for local users. Revealing diverse but often limited levels of agricultural water use, the reasons behind these were explored based on assessments of water availability, practices and associated drivers upscaled across 50 small reservoirs in the Upper Merguellil catchment (Central Tunisia). MNDWI on 546 treated Landsat images over 1999-2014 were used in combination with extensive field data to develop and validate water availability assessments for all reservoirs. An Ensemble Kalman Filter approach was used to combine remotely sensed surface area with a GR4J-water balance model and notably reduce runoff uncertainties arising from highly variable and localised rainfall intensities. These notably reduced mean annual availability RMSE to the order of 10 000 m3 on lakes where initial capacities vary between 20 000 m3 and over 1 000 000 m3, and identified the potential of each lake to support agriculture during the dry season.In parallel, rapid surveys, quantitative questionnaires and semi directed interviews were used to identify water uses and socio economic and institutional drivers influencing the smallholder livelihoods around these reservoirs. Using multi-stage samples of farmers allowed to progressively narrow and refine the analysis which were then upscaled based on typologies of lakes. Results confirmed withdrawals remained limited and focussed essentially on the occasional watering of fruit trees. On a handful of lakes, water resources were a limiting factor but rarely a sufficient factor to explain the heterogeneous water uses observed around reservoirs. Most farmers were not equipped with the suitable capabilities to increase their withdrawals as a result of problems over pumps, water access and conflicts, compounded through limited and short term government assistance. Individual successes were observed as a result of farmers possessing adequate economic resilience and/or means to secure alternate water supplies during dry spells. Faced with limited available storage capacities and prolonged droughts, small reservoirs must in this climatic context retain their supplementary irrigation focus and not strive to support widespread intensification of practices.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:32:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Franciane Araujo de Oliveira.pdf: 3974809 bytes, checksum: c96a158152811234cb9f005dfaf1fdb7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-11-24 / In this thesis are analyzed the water uses under multiple actors' representation in a territorial approach of Rio Doce's middle course watershed, in the southwest part of Goiás, Brazil. With the territory and subsistence agriculture and ranching's modernization" increases the capitalist farming and ranching, changing the pace of production and technologies employed in the production process, the space organization and also the water uses and senses. The Rio Doce s basin and southwest part of Goiás are representative for the analysis of water uses and meanings because of the plurality of actors and activities involved in the production process. The research problem that is expected to answer is: how the territorialized actors in Rio Doce s basin represent the uses and meanings of water according to its place in the world? Following a plural methodological conduct, primary and secondary quantative and specially qualitative data are used, which reveal the meanings gave by these actors to the spatial reality in discussion. In this research area, hegemonyed by agribusiness, both the export agriculture activity as well as the ranching one make the water enter in international economy device, having, in consequence, a geopolitical sense. / Nesta dissertação analisa-se os usos da água sob a representação de múltiplos atores, em uma abordagem territorial do médio curso da Bacia do Rio Doce, no Sudoeste Goiano. Com a efetivação da modernização do território, da agricultura e da pecuária de subsistência emerge a agricultura e a pecuária capitalista, alterando-se o ritmo da produção e das tecnologias empregadas no processo produtivo, a organização do espaço e, também, os usos e os sentidos da água. A Bacia do Rio Doce e o Sudoeste Goiano são representativos para a análise dos usos e dos sentidos da água pela pluralidade de atores envolvidos no processo produtivo e pelas atividades desenvolvidas. O problema de pesquisa que se espera responder é: como os atores territorializados na Bacia do Rio Doce representam os usos e os significados da água de acordo com o seu lugar no mundo? Seguindo uma conduta metodológica plural, utilizaram-se dados primários e secundários quantitativos e, especialmente, qualitativos, que revelam os sentidos e as significações que esses atores dão à realidade espacial em questão. No caso da área da pesquisa, hegemonizada pelo agronegócio, tanto a atividade da agricultura de exportação quanto à da pecuária também de exportação fazem com que a água entre num dispositivo da economia internacional, tendo, então, um sentido geopolítico.

O presente trabalho apresenta-se como um marco inovador na área de gestão de recursos hídricos, já que o mesmo consegue inserir aspectos de qualidade da água para os processos de outorga e cobrança pelo uso da água, de forma articulada a todos os instrumentos da Política Nacional de Recursos Hídricos (Lei 9.433 de 1997), possibilitando a efetiva aplicação da Política e da Resolução n° 48, de 21 de março de 2005, que estabelece critérios gerais para a cobrança pelo uso dos recursos hídricos. Traz também para a Política um novo conceito, o de Justiça Hídrica, ou seja, quem capta água com qualidade superior paga mais do que quem capta água com qualidade inferior, assim como, quem mais polui e prejudica os usuários de jusante, mais paga. Neste trabalho, a variável de decisão do sistema é o volume outorgado e o estudo leva em consideração a capacidade de autodepuração, o enquadramento em classes de uso, o regime de vazão do corpo hídrico, a qualidade da água captada e os prejuízos, em termos de qualidade da água, ocasionados pelos usuários-poluidores aos usuários de jusante. A ferramenta de auxílio aqui oferecida é um Sistema de Suporte a Decisão (SSD), denominado RB, que apresenta: um módulo Interface, um módulo Modelos, constituído pelo modelo de outorga e cobrança pelo uso da água RM1 e pelo modelo de qualidade das águas QUAL2E e, por fim, um módulo Dados, que representa os dados de entrada e saída do sistema. O SSD RB foi aplicado à bacia do rio Jundiaí, afluente do rio Tietê, localizado no Estado de São Paulo. Na aplicação do SSD RB, foi realizada uma análise comparativa para a variação de cenários relativa a Classes de Uso do corpo hídrico, vazões de referência e diferentes valores de cobrança que podem ser utilizados. A aplicação do SSD RB reflete a necessidade de uma articulação sistemática entre os instrumentos da Política Nacional de Recursos Hídricos, apoiada na diretriz de gestão integrada de recursos hídricos, ou seja, existe um único corpo de trabalho (a gestão de recursos hídricos) cujos membros (instrumentos de gestão) só ganham sentido quanto articulados entre si com um mesmo objetivo: a garantia de água de boa qualidade com a quantidade necessária à atual e às futuras gerações. / The main objective of this study is to develop a set of tools to help with the implementation of water management mechanisms such as the analysis of authorization of water uses (permits) and water charging. An integrated analysis of both water quality and quantity is needed and the decision process must also take into account watershed plans and the designated uses of the water. In this study, the decision variable is the volume of water authorized in each permit. The tool developed in this study is a Decision Support System named RB, based on the QUAL2E model and an water permit and charging simulation system named RM1. The RB system was tested in the Jundiaí watershed, a tributary of the Tietê river located in the State of São Paulo. In this case study, several scenarios with different classification of water bodies, reference flows and water values were tested. The application of the system shows that water management tools must be applied in an integrated manner, mainly to reflect both aspects of water quality and quantity. Water management tools are to be articulated so that the main objective of supplying water with good quality and in an adequate amount is sustainable in the long run.

O presente trabalho apresenta-se como um marco inovador na área de gestão de recursos hídricos, já que o mesmo consegue inserir aspectos de qualidade da água para os processos de outorga e cobrança pelo uso da água, de forma articulada a todos os instrumentos da Política Nacional de Recursos Hídricos (Lei 9.433 de 1997), possibilitando a efetiva aplicação da Política e da Resolução n° 48, de 21 de março de 2005, que estabelece critérios gerais para a cobrança pelo uso dos recursos hídricos. Traz também para a Política um novo conceito, o de Justiça Hídrica, ou seja, quem capta água com qualidade superior paga mais do que quem capta água com qualidade inferior, assim como, quem mais polui e prejudica os usuários de jusante, mais paga. Neste trabalho, a variável de decisão do sistema é o volume outorgado e o estudo leva em consideração a capacidade de autodepuração, o enquadramento em classes de uso, o regime de vazão do corpo hídrico, a qualidade da água captada e os prejuízos, em termos de qualidade da água, ocasionados pelos usuários-poluidores aos usuários de jusante. A ferramenta de auxílio aqui oferecida é um Sistema de Suporte a Decisão (SSD), denominado RB, que apresenta: um módulo Interface, um módulo Modelos, constituído pelo modelo de outorga e cobrança pelo uso da água RM1 e pelo modelo de qualidade das águas QUAL2E e, por fim, um módulo Dados, que representa os dados de entrada e saída do sistema. O SSD RB foi aplicado à bacia do rio Jundiaí, afluente do rio Tietê, localizado no Estado de São Paulo. Na aplicação do SSD RB, foi realizada uma análise comparativa para a variação de cenários relativa a Classes de Uso do corpo hídrico, vazões de referência e diferentes valores de cobrança que podem ser utilizados. A aplicação do SSD RB reflete a necessidade de uma articulação sistemática entre os instrumentos da Política Nacional de Recursos Hídricos, apoiada na diretriz de gestão integrada de recursos hídricos, ou seja, existe um único corpo de trabalho (a gestão de recursos hídricos) cujos membros (instrumentos de gestão) só ganham sentido quanto articulados entre si com um mesmo objetivo: a garantia de água de boa qualidade com a quantidade necessária à atual e às futuras gerações. / The main objective of this study is to develop a set of tools to help with the implementation of water management mechanisms such as the analysis of authorization of water uses (permits) and water charging. An integrated analysis of both water quality and quantity is needed and the decision process must also take into account watershed plans and the designated uses of the water. In this study, the decision variable is the volume of water authorized in each permit. The tool developed in this study is a Decision Support System named RB, based on the QUAL2E model and an water permit and charging simulation system named RM1. The RB system was tested in the Jundiaí watershed, a tributary of the Tietê river located in the State of São Paulo. In this case study, several scenarios with different classification of water bodies, reference flows and water values were tested. The application of the system shows that water management tools must be applied in an integrated manner, mainly to reflect both aspects of water quality and quantity. Water management tools are to be articulated so that the main objective of supplying water with good quality and in an adequate amount is sustainable in the long run.

In this thesis I examine and explore whether and if Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) inspired water reforms respond to- and address the diverse realities of women and men in informal (and formal) rural economies of Sekororo, South Africa and Ward 17 in Gwanda, Zimbabwe which are both in the Limpopo basin. South Africa and Zimbabwe, like other southern African countries, embarked on IWRMinspired water reforms, culminating in the promulgation of the National Water Acts in 1998, four years after the attainment of South Africa’s democracy in 1994 and 18 years after Zimbabwe attained independence in 1980. I argue that the adoption of IWRM, which emphasises second generation water issues such as demand management, water quality, environmental flow requirements etc, and not the development of water infrastructure, begs the question whether such reforms can make a meaningful contribution to the development agenda in countries where, during apartheid and colonialism, the water rights (among other rights) of millions of blacks were compromised because of unjust legislation and skewed underinvestment in water infrastructure

In this thesis I examine and explore whether and if Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) inspired water reforms respond to- and address the diverse realities of women and men in informal (and formal) rural economies of Sekororo, South Africa and Ward 17 in Gwanda, Zimbabwe which are both in the Limpopo basin. South Africa and Zimbabwe, like other southern African countries, embarked on IWRMinspired water reforms, culminating in the promulgation of the National Water Acts in 1998, four years after the attainment of South Africa’s democracy in 1994 and 18 years after Zimbabwe attained independence in 1980. I argue that the adoption of IWRM, which emphasises second generation water issues such as demand management, water quality, environmental flow requirements etc, and not the development of water infrastructure, begs the question whether such reforms can make a meaningful contribution to the development agenda in countries where, during apartheid and colonialism, the water rights (among other rights) of millions of blacks were compromised because of unjust legislation and skewed underinvestment in water infrastructure

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In this thesis I examine and explore whether and if Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) inspired water reforms respond to- and address the diverse realities of women and men in informal (and formal) rural economies of Sekororo, South Africa and Ward 17 in Gwanda, Zimbabwe which are both in the Limpopo basin. South Africa and Zimbabwe, like other southern African countries, embarked on IWRM inspired water reforms, culminating in the promulgation of the National Water Acts in 1998, four years after the attainment of South Africa's democracy in 1994 and 18 years after Zimbabwe attained independence in 1980. I argue that the adoption of IWRM, which emphasises second generation water issues such as demand management, water quality, environmental flow requirements etc, and not the development of water infrastructure, begs the question whether such reforms can make a meaningful contribution to the development agenda in countries where, during apartheid and colonialism, the water rights (among other rights) of millions of blacks were compromised because of unjust legislation and skewed underinvestment in water infrastructure. / South Africa