Master of Science / Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering / Naiqian Zhang / The primary objective of this research is to achieve automatic evaluation of the efficiency of using Trichogramma bourarachae for biological control of Cadra (=Ephestia) cautella by calculating the rate of parasitization. Cadra cautella is a moth feeding as a larva on dried fruit as well as stored nuts, seeds, and other warehouse foodstuffs. It attacks dates from ripening stages while on tree, throughout storage, and until consumption. These attacks cause significant qualitative and quantitative damages, which negatively affect dates’ marketability, resulting in economic losses. To achieve this research goal, tasks were accomplished by developing image processing algorithms for detecting, identifying, and differentiating between three Cadra cautella egg categories based on the success of Trichogramma parasitization against them. The egg categories were parasitized (black and dark red), fertile (unhatched yellow), and hatched (white) eggs. Color, intensity, and shape information was obtained from digital images of Cadra eggs after they were subjected to Trichogramma parasitization and used to develop detection algorithms. Two image processing methods were developed. The first method included segmentation and extractions of color and morphological features followed by watershed delineation, and is referred to as the "Watershed Method" (WT). The second method utilized the Hough Transformation to find circular objects followed by convolution filtering, and is referred to as the "Hough Transform Method" (HT). The algorithms were developed based on 2 images and then tested on more than 40 images. The WT and the HT methods achieved correct classification rates (CCRs) of parasitized eggs of 92% and 96%, respectively. Their CCRs of yellow eggs were 48% and 94%, respectively, while for white eggs the CCRs were 42% and 73%. Both methods performed satisfactorily in detecting the parasitized eggs, but the HT outperformed the WT in detecting the unparasitized eggs. The developed detection methods will enable automatic evaluation of biological control of Cadra (=Ephestia) cautella using Trichogramma bourarachae. Moreover, with few adjustments these methods can be used in similar applications such as detecting plant diseases in terms of presence of insects or their eggs.

Understanding the implications of climate change on streamflow regime is complex as changes in climate vary over space and time. However, a better understanding of the impact of climate change is required for identifying how stream ecosystems vulnerable to these changes, and ultimately to guide the development of robust strategies for reducing risk in the face of changing climatic conditions. Here I used physically based hydrologic modeling to improve understanding of how climate change may impact streamflow regimes and advance some of the cyberinfrastructure and GIS methodologies that support physically based hydrologic modeling by: (1) using a physically based model to examine the potential effects of climate change on ecologically relevant aspects of streamflow regime, (2) developing data services in support of input data preparation for physically based distributed hydrologic models, and (3) enhancing terrain analysis algorithms to support rapid watershed delineation over large area. TOPNET, a physically based hydrologic model was applied over eight watersheds across the U.S to assess the sensitivity and changes of the streamflow regime due to climate change. Distributed hydrologic models require diverse geospatial and time series inputs, the acquisition and preparation of which are labor intensive and difficult to reproduce. I developed web services to automate the input data preparation steps for a physically based distributed hydrological model to enable water scientist to spend less time processing input data. This input includes terrain analysis and watershed delineation over a large area. However, limitations of current terrain analysis tools are (1) some support only a limited set of specific raster and vector data formats, and (2) all that we know of require data to be in a projected coordinate system. I enhanced terrain analysis algorithms to extend their generality and support rapid, web-based watershed delineation services. Climate change studies help to improve the scientific foundation for conducting climate change impacts assessments, thus building the capacity of the water management community to understand and respond to climate change. Web-based data services and enhancements to terrain analysis algorithms to support rapid watershed delineation will impact a diverse community of researchers involved terrain analysis, hydrologic and environmental modeling.

Maintaining the ecological health of streams is vital for sustainable water resources management. Streamflow is a primary factor influencing the structure and function of ecological communities. A quantitative understanding of how stream biota respond to variation in streamflow is required for stream bioassessment. This dissertation focuses on quantifying relationships between streamflow regime and stream macroinvertebrate richness and composition. The contribution comprises statistical models that predict stream macroinvertebrate class from streamflow regime and predict streamflow regime from watershed attributes, and a tool that helps derive watershed attribute variables used in these models. The dissertation is a collection of three papers. In the first paper 12 variables were used to represent streamflow regime at 543 sites in the western US. Principal component analysis (PCA) and K-means clustering were used to obtain statistically independent factors and streamflow regime classes. We examined the relationship between these characterizations of streamflow and macroinvertebrate richness and composition at 63 of the 543 sites where there was also biological data. This analysis identified specific aspects of the streamflow regime that were useful in predicting macroinvertebrate richness and composition and that have potential application in classification-based bioassessment and management. A regional-scale study such as this requires tools for efficiently delineating watersheds and deriving their attributes. Paper two presents a multiple watershed delineation tool that addresses issues such as a) incorrectly positioned outlets and b) large Digital Elevation Models. This tool has capabilities to delineate stream networks with the threshold that determines drainage density being objectively determined so that the resulting networks adhere to geomorphological stream network laws. It also derives a suite of geomorphological watershed attributes that were used in prediction models in paper three. In paper three, we developed statistical models to predict streamflow regime class from watershed attributes. Four popular statistical methods were used and the uncertainty associated with class predictions for each method was quantified. Paper three also identified the watershed attributes that were most important for discriminating streamflow regime classes.

Developments that have been taking place on Cal Poly campus over the years have altered the natural hydrology of the area. Stormwater management practices could help reduce the impacts of these developments. Computer models can help to design effective and economical stormwater management solutions at a watershed scale. As such, the objective of this study was to develop a stormwater management model for Cal Poly campus. The model was developed based on the utility data obtained from the university and other watershed data available from open sources. Field surveys were conducted to address some anomalies in the utility data, and streamflow monitoring was performed. The model was calibrated using the streamflow data measured during this study. The calibration effort significantly improved the prediction accuracy of the model. The calibrated model was then used to analyze the hydrologic performance of implementing LID systems for two projects that Cal Poly plans to build. Permeable Pavements (PPs) and Bioretention Cells (BRCs) were the LID types examined. The LIDs were evaluated based on peak flow and runoff volume reductions they would achieve. The potential reductions were compared for current conditions and the proposed project if LIDs were implemented, and for inflows to the LIDs and outflows from the LIDs. The results indicate that implementing a PP system for the proposed student apartment at the current H-1 and R-1 parking lots and a BRC system for the proposed engineering project facilities at the current H-2 parking lots will significantly reduce peak flow and runoff volume. Overall, the developed model will help the university with the traditional stormwater management practices such as flood control and to identify effective LID practices for future developments. Limitations of the current model and recommendations on how to improve the model are also discussed.

BiG

Digital elevation models (DEMs) and their derivatives such as slope, flow direction and flow accumulation maps, are used frequently as inputs to hydrologic and nonpoint source modeling. The depressions which are frequently present in DEMs may represent the actual topography, but are often the result of errors. Creating a depression-free surface is commonly required prior to deriving flow direction, flow accumulation, flow network, and watershed boundary maps. The objectives of this study were: 1) characterize the occurrence of depressions in 30m USGS DEMs and assess correlations to watershed topographic characteristics, and 2) compare the performance of two algorithms used to remove depressions and delineate flow networks from DEMs. Sixty-six watersheds were selected to represent a range of topographic conditions characteristic of the Piedmont and Mountain and Valley regions of Virginia. Analysis was based on USGS 30m DEMs with elevations in integer meters. With few exceptions watersheds fell on single 7.5minute USGS quadrangle sheets, ranged in size from 450 to 3000 hectares, and had average slopes ranging from 3 to 20 percent. ArcView (3.1) with the Spatial Analyst (1.1) extension was used to summarize characteristics of each watershed including slope, elevation range, elevation standard deviation, curvature, channel slope, and drainage density. TOPAZ (ver 1.2) and ArcView were each used to generate a depression-free surface, flow network and watershed area. Characteristics of the areas 'cut' and 'filled' by the algorithms were compared to topographic characteristics of the watersheds. Blue line streams were digitized from scanned USGS 7.5minute topographic maps (DRGs) then rasterized at 30 m for analysis of distance from the derived flow networks. The removal of depressions resulted in changes in elevation values in 0 - 11% of the cells in the watersheds. The percentage of area changed was higher in flatter watersheds. Changed elevation cells resulted in changes in two to three times as many cells in derivative flow direction, flow accumulation and slope grids. Mean fill depth by watershed ranged from 0 to 10 m, with maximum fill depths up to 40 m. In comparison with ArcView, TOPAZ, on average affected 30% fewer cells with less change in elevation. The significance of the difference between ArcView and TOPAZ decreased as watershed slope increased. A spatial assessment of the modified elevation and slope cells showed that depressions in the DEMs occur predominantly on or along the flow network. Flow networks derived by ArcView and TOPAZ were not significantly different from blue line streams digitized from the USGS quadrangles as indicated by a paired t test. Watershed area delineated by ArcView and TOPAZ was different for almost all watersheds, but was generally within 1%. Conclusions from this study are: 1) The depressions in 30 m DEMs can make up a significant portion of the area especially for flatter watersheds; 2) The TOPAZ algorithm performed better than ArcView in minimizing the area modified in the process of creating a depressionless surface, particularly in flatter topography; 3) Areas affected by removing depressions are predominantly adjacent to the stream network; 4) For every elevation cell changed, slopes are changed for two to three cells, on average; and 5) ArcView and TOPAZ derived flow networks closely matched the blue line streams. / Master of Science

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Understanding of Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems (GDEs) and their extent within the Table Mountain Group (TMG) aquifer is poor. To understand the dependence to basic ecological and hydrogeological concepts need explanation. The use of current literature aided in identification and classification. From the literature it has come clear that groundwater dependence centers around two issues, water source and water use determination. The use of Geographical Information System (GIS) showed its potential in proof of water sources. Rainfall data and a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for the Uniondale area have been used to do watershed delineation, which is in line with locating GDEs on a landscape. Thus the conceptual approach should be a broad one that sets a basis for both investigation (scientific research) and institutional arrangements (management). On the scientific research aspect: 1) Methods used to ascertain groundwater dependence have been identified and described (for example morphological traits, physiological traits, etc.) a) Use of GIS to delineate watersheds in the Uniondale area, putting it as one of useful methods that can be used in locating GDEs in a landscape. b) Use of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) to create both geological and topographic cross-sections. Topographic cross-sections are important to locate ecosystems along a landscape, while geological cross-sections are useful in conceptualising groundwater flow. 2) The Plant Functional Type concept, which puts together plant species regardless of phylogeny but rather on morphological, phenological and physiological/life history trait similarity, has been suggested as a useful concept for the TMG GDEs. On the management aspect: 1) An ecosystem approach to understand groundwater has been identified and modified to suite the TMG GDE management. 2) A retention strategy useful to manage the TMG GDEs effectively has been suggested. There are knowledge gaps that exist in the TMG aquifer about Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems. Thus there is: • A need to identify GDE types that exist based on their degrees of dependency on groundwater. • A need to classify the GDEs using a PFTconcept. • To compile a trait (morphological, phenological and physiological) database for TMG aquifer GDEs.

No description available.

Växande städer leder till att naturmark omvandlas till stadsmiljöer. Det skapar mer hårdgjorda ytor och därmed ökade volymer dagvatten som behöver hanteras. Modellering av dagvattennätet används ofta för att bedöma kapaciteten och risk för översvämningar. Avrinningsområdets storlek är en avgörande parameter för att bedöma hur mycket vatten som kommer till en viss ledning. Traditionellt har automatisk bestämning av avrinningsområden gjorts enbart utifrån topografin. I områden med dagvattennät styr däremot ledningarnas sträckning i första hand hur vattnet rinner, och de följer inte nödvändigtvis terrängen. ArcHydro Tools, som är ett tilläggsprogram till ArcMap, har utvecklats för att beräkna topografiska avrinningsområden. Genom att programmera en tilläggsfunktion i Python har processen i ArcHydro Tools anpassats för att kunna ta hänsyn till dagvattennätet. Dagvattennätet approximerades som vattendrag. Tryckledningar och tunnlar tillåter inte något inflöde av vatten. Därför beskrevs dessa som ändpunkter i ledningsnätet, varifrån vattnet inte rann vidare. Funktionen som skapades i det här examensarbetet tillät att vattnet stannade i dessa punkter, till skillnad från i den ursprungliga metoden. Den utgick istället från att vattnet rann till kanten av det undersökta området, vilket i de här fallen skulle ha resulterat i felaktigt avgränsade avrinningsområden. Tilläggsfunktionen anpassades för att användas som övriga funktioner i ArcMap och testades på data över Lidingö stad. Resultatet visade att det var möjligt att utnyttja topografiskt baserade metoder för bestämning av avrinningsområden så att avgränsningen istället skedde med utgångspunkt i dagvattennätet. Det är ett steg mot att effektivisera processen för bestämning av avrinningsområden för användning vid hydrologisk modellering av dagvattennätet. Behovet av manuell bearbetning minskas. Ett försök att i ArcMap implementera en funktion för efterbehandling av avrinningsområden gjordes också. Funktionen letar upp avrinningsområden som bedöms som för små och lägger ihop dem med ett närliggande område. Avrinningsområden som beräknats med den modifierade metoden har senare använts vid modellering av dagvattennätet i Molkom, Värmland. / Growing populations result in expanding cities. An increase in the amount of impervious surfaces in the area will follow and thereby generate more storm water. The capacity of the drainage system can be evaluated using hydraulic modelling. The model highly depends on the catchment areas, which will determine the water volume each pipe section receive. Watershed delineation is usually done based on the topography. However, if a storm water drainage system is present, it may route the water in a different direction than the slope indicates. ArcHydro Tools is an extension to ArcMap and is commonly used to delineate catchment areas. The method heavily relies on topography during this process. A function has been developed during the course of this project to allow for the drainage system to be the primary source of information for watershed delineation. This function made sure that outlets in the model were to be evaluated as such, even if they happen to be located in the middle of the area of interest. The water is therefore not necessarily routed to the edge of the elevation model, but can be allowed to stay at the appropriate position. In order to do this, the drainage system was represented as a stream network. The new method was applied to test data supplied by Lidingö city, Stockholm, Sweden, and included elevation data and information about the drainage system. The result implies that it is indeed possible to use the drainage system as a base for delineation of catchment areas. A more efficient method of calculating catchment areas will reduce the required amount of manual processing, thereby saving time and resources. Another function, for finishing up the resulting catchment areas, is proposed but not fully implemented. The whole process was used to delineate catchment areas for Molkom, County of Värmland, Sweden. The resulting watersheds were later successfully used for modelling the storm water drains in the area.