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Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work / Gerad D. Middendorf / In the almost 40 years since the passage of the Clean Water Act and 25 years of regulating nonpoint source pollution, and despite countless state and local community projects focused on water quality issues, clean water goals have not been met. To comprehend this failure and understand how water resources are governed and how water quality goals are pursued, I explore how watershed-level governance structures emerged and function in their specific local environment, within the state hierarchy of water governance, and as implementation of state and national policy. To this end, the structure, process, and outcomes of two newly organized and local watershed-level governance structures in Kansas were examined. An actor-oriented political ecology approach informed by environmental governance and watershed management literature was used to guide the study. Attaining water quality goals necessitates recognizing the connections between the political economy of agriculture, the cultural factors acting upon agricultural producers, and the natural, biophysical environment. Thusly, a comparative case study strategy was employed for the overall research design. Documents and interview transcripts were analyzed employing a grounded theory approach for differences and similarities; they were also sorted into topical categories and coded for common themes. The research questions focused on the agency and capacity of local watershed structures to determine the relations regarding water resource use in their watershed. Central questions addressed structure responsiveness to local versus state or national concerns; the underlying interests reflected by community member participation; and the effectiveness of local water-governance in protecting water resources. Governance models that began with holistic, alternative, participatory strategies are evolving into targeted, problem-solution strategies, and what began as watershed management is becoming problem shed management.

Seasonally snow covered alpine areas play a larger role in the hydrologic cycle than their area would indicate. Their ecosystems may be sensitive indicators of climatic and atmospheric change. Assessing the hydrologic and bio- geochemical responses of these areas to changes in inputs of water, chemicals and energy should be based on a detailed understanding of watershed processes. This dissertation discusses the development and testing of a model capable of predicting watershed hydrologic and hydrochemical responses to these changes. The model computes integrated water and chemical balances for watersheds with unlimited numbers of terrestrial, stream, and lake subunits, each of which may have a unique, variable snow -covered area. Model capabilities include 1) tracking of chemical inputs from precipitation, dry deposition, snowmelt, mineral weathering, basefiow or flows from areas external to the modeled watershed, and user -defined sources and sinks, 2) tracking water and chemical movements in the canopy, snowpack, soil litter, multiple soil layers, streamflow, between terrestrial subunits (surface and subsurface movement), and within lakes (2 layers), 3) chemical speciation, including free and total soluble species, precipitates, exchange complexes, and acid -neutralizing capacity, 4) nitrogen reactions, 5) a snowmelt optimization procedure capable of exactly matching observed watershed outflows, and 6) modeling riparian areas. Two years of data were available for fitting and comparing observed and modeled output. To the extent possible, model parameters are set based on physical or chemical measurements, leaving only a few fitted parameters. The effects of snowmelt rate, rate of chemical elution from the snowpack, nitrogen reactions, mineral weathering, and flow routing on modeled outputs are examined.

Seasonally snow covered alpine areas play a larger role in the hydrologic cycle than their area would indicate. Their ecosystems may be sensitive indicators of climatic and atmospheric change. Assessing the hydrologic and bio-geochemical responses of these areas to changes in inputs of water, chemicals and energy should be based on a detailed understanding of watershed processes. This dissertation discusses the development and testing of a model capable of predicting watershed hydrologic and hydrochemical responses to these changes. The model computes integrated water and chemical balances for watersheds with unlimited numbers of terrestrial, stream, and lake subunits, each of which may have a unique, variable snow-covered area. Model capabilities include (1) tracking of chemical inputs from precipitation, dry deposition, snowmelt, mineral weathering, baseflow or flows from areas external to the modeled watershed, and user-defined sources and sinks, (2) tracking water and chemical movements in the canopy, snowpack, soil litter, multiple soil layers, streamflow, between terrestrial subunits (surface and subsurface movement), and within lakes (2 layers), (3) chemical speciation, including free and total soluble species, precipitates, exchange complexes, and acid-neutralizing capacity, (4) nitrogen reactions, (5) a snowmelt optimization procedure capable of exactly matching observed watershed outflows, and (6) modeling riparian areas. Two years of data were available for fitting and comparing observed and modeled output. To the extent possible, model parameters are set based on physical or chemical measurements, leaving only a few fitted parameters. Thc effects of snowmelt rate, rate of chemical elution from the snowpack, nitrogen reactions, mineral weathering, and flow routing on modeled outputs are examined.

In developing natural resources, decision makers are seeking to achieve different objectives, which cannot be reduced to a single objective such as economic efficiency, this covers only part of the problem. Tradeoffs between multiple objective of unequal importance is unavoidable in the process of selection or ranking of alternative developmental projects or plans. Multiobjective technique has the ability to deal with qualitative and quantitative objectives, also it enhances the planning process by involving broader segments of the society in the process of decision making. Compromise programming (CP) and utility worth analysis (UWA), two multiobjective methods were applied on Zarqa River Basin Project (ZRBP) in Jordan. Their appropriateness and suitability as decision aiding tools was examined in this study. For the purpose of the study, five criteria were developed to serve as a basis for the evaluation and 61 farmers and 15 technicians, planners and decision makers were interviewed. High consistency was observed among the results of ranking the six alternatives when both methods were applied, at the same time the ranking of the alternatives according to benefit/cost ratio and the internal rates of return as economic efficiency measures showed no agreement with the multiobjective ranking.

Ce mémoire a comme objectif de présenter une revue de la littérature et une analyse comparative des différents modèles existants pour le calcul de la capacité de support d’un plan d’eau aux apports en phosphore. Ce document a aussi pour but d’évaluer les différentes options pour l’utilisation de ce genre d’outil au Québec, ainsi que d’amorcer une réflexion sur les applications possibles de ce concept au niveau local, en lien avec l’aménagement du territoire des bassins versants. L’analyse comparative des modèles théoriques, combinée à la réflexion d’acteurs clés impliqués actuellement dans un processus qui consiste à tester leur utilisation dans les Laurentides au Québec, a permis de mettre en relief l’importance de calibrer les modèles régionalement. De plus, certains avantages semblent résider dans l’utilisation d’un modèle de nature empirique afin d’effectuer les prédictions sur les apports naturels et totaux en phosphore pour les lacs de cette région. Par contre, l’utilisation d’une approche de type « bilan de masse », s’avère tout de même indispensable afin de relativiser l’importance des différents apports anthropiques en phosphore du bassin versant. Dans l’avenir, l’utilisation de tels modèles permettra possiblement de justifier certaines mesures restrictives au développement des bassins versants, qui pourront s’insérer parmi les outils d’urbanisme actuels. Ce sont principalement les municipalités qui détiennent les pouvoirs nécessaires afin d’intégrer les prescriptions découlant de ce genre d’analyse à l’aménagement du territoire des bassins versants. Plusieurs outils d’urbanisme, tels que les plans d’aménagement d’ensemble (PAE) ou bien les règlements de zonage et de lotissement, semblent donner assez de latitude afin de permettre aux municipalités d’intervenir en ce sens. Toutefois, les modèles de capacité de support ne pourront pas être utilisés afin de calculer un nombre précis d’habitations qu’il est possible de construire dans le bassin versant d’un lac. / This study presents a literature review of current carrying capacity models developed in Ontario and Quebec (Canada) for the estimation of phosphorus (P) loading in lakes. Another objective is to evaluate their applications to land and watershed management practices in Quebec. A comparison of theoretical and empirical models, combined with the observations of keys stakeholders, confirms the importance of calibrating models regionally. The analysis further reveals that empirical models estimate more accurately P concentrations in lakes. However, the use of traditional mass balance approaches is still a necessity for the estimation of different P sources in the watershed. These models can support decision makers and land managers in Quebec in the application of more restrictive measures in lakes where the carrying capacity is currently exceeded. In Quebec, the use of the models and their implementation in the legislation will be a municipal responsibility. Many urbanism tools already allow this kind of intervention (zoning, « outils à caractère discrétionnaire »). But, model use alone will not be sufficient to justify a total interdiction of land development in a watershed or to impose a strict limit to house and cottage development.

A bacia hidrográfica do Rio Grande de Ubatuba (26Km2) encontra-se quase que totalmente recoberta com vegetação nativa da Mata Atlântica, e grande parte está inserida no interior do Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar. O Rio Grande é um manancial estratégico para o município, pois abastece 88% da população, que recebe água tratada de serviço público. Com o propósito de conhecer a potencialidade hídrica do manancial de forma a subsidiar tecnicamente a elaboração do Plano de Manejo para a bacia, o presente estudo foi conduzido para gerar a série histórica de vazão, usando o Modelo SMAP (Soil Moisture Accounting Procedure) e analisar o balanço entre a disponibilidade e a demanda de água. Com apenas quatro anos incompletos de dados fluviométricos e com a série histórica de 67 anos de dados de precipitação, foi possível calibrar os parâmetros e validar o modelo com uma correlação de 0,838 entre as vazões estimada e observada e por último gerar a serie histórica de vazão. Com a série histórica de vazão gerada foi feita a análise temporal do balanço entre a disponibilidade e demanda que permitiram identificar a insuficiência hídrica para atender a demanda para abastecimento público ou para manutenção dos processos ecológicos do manancial, considerando três aspectos: a flutuação da população, a ocorrência de anos hídricos secos e, mesmo nos anos hídricos normais, ocorrência de períodos de meses secos prolongados. Com base na análise conjunta dos resultados, algumas ações consideradas compatíveis para a prevenção de possível escassez de água no futuro foram formuladas, visando proporcionar melhor qualidade de vida à população. / The Rio Grande Watershed of Ubatuba (26km2 ) is almost completely covered with native Atlantic Rainforest vegetation, and a large part is within the bounds of the Serra do Mar State Park. The Rio Grande is a strategic water source for the municipality, supplying 88% of the population demand with treated water via a public service. In order to analyse the water potential of the source and to acquire technical information for the preparation of the Watershed Management Plan, this study was carried generate streamflow historic data, using the SMAP (Soil Moisture Accounting Procedure) model. This, in turn, permitted to analyse the balance between demand and availability of water.With only 4 years of incomplete streamflow data and 67 years of rainfall data, it was possible to calibrate the parameters and validate the model with a correlation of 0.838 between the estimated and observed flows, and finally produce a streamflow history.To produce the streamflow history, a time analysis was carried out with the balance between availability and demand, which allowed the identification of water shortages for public supply, as well as for the maintenance of the stream ecological processes, considering the following three aspects: population fluctuations, the occurrence of drought years and, even in normal years, the occurrence of extended periods of drought.

Tropical forests are under continual threat due to deforestation and forest fragmentation processes which are driven by the economic activities growth, mainly agriculture. Replacing forest with other land uses can cause severe impacts on river water quality, altering its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The Atlantic Forest, in particular, had its original vegetation cover reduced to about 11%, wherein the crop lands expansion and urban sprawl still threatening this important ecosystem and the ecosystem services that it provides. In this sense, the main objective of this study was to investigate the relation between forest cover and water quality of tropical agricultural watersheds. For that, six experimental watersheds with different percentage of forest cover were selected in the Sarapuí River watershed, State of São Paulo, Brazil. Water samples were collected during a hydrologic year to obtain water quality parameters that represent impacts induced by anthropic activities. According to the percentage of forest cover, the watersheds were denominated as \"forested\", when they presented more than 55% of forest cover, and \"degraded\", with less than 35%. Multivariate statistical models were applied to identify differences between these two groups. In a second moment, the relation of land use/land cover within the watershed and within its respective riparian zone, represented in this study by the Permanent Preservation Areas (PPA), with water quality was compared through mixed models and redundancy analysis to identify the main factors that influenced water quality variability. Lastly, a watershed simulation modeling was applied to verify the impact of riparian forest restoration on water quality of the Sarapuí River watershed, wherein each experimental watershed was represented by a sub-watershed in the model. The results showed that the degraded watersheds presented higher values of solids, turbidity, nutrients and coliforms, besides presenting greater temporal data variability compared to forested watersheds. This variation is associated with the stream flow changes during the year. In general, forest cover was related to good water quality, while agriculture and urban areas were responsible for the water quality degradation. Pasture presented mixed impacts, but it was not generally correlated with poor water quality. The water quality parameters responded differently to the influence of land-use/land-cover patterns in the watershed and riparian zone, but the overall water quality is better explained by the landscape composition within the watershed. Nevertheless, the watershed simulation indicated that PPA restoration reduces the sediment and nutrients loading into the river. Thus, it is possible to conclude that tropical forest plays a fundamental role in the water resources conservation, reducing impacts of human activities in watersheds and the watershed management with forest restoration strategies for the entire watershed is critical for the maintenance of water quality to water supply, despite the importance of the riparian zone. / As florestas tropicais estão sob constante ameaça devido ao processo de desmatamento e fragmentação florestal impulsionado pelo crescimento das atividades econômicas, em especial, a agricultura. A substituição de áreas florestadas por outros usos do solo pode causar impactos severos na qualidade da água de rios, alterando suas características físicas, químicas e biológicas. A Mata Atlântica, em especial, teve sua cobertura original reduzida a cerca de 11%, sendo que a expansão de terras cultiváveis e urbanização ainda ameaçam esse importante ecossistema e os serviços ecossistêmicos prestados por ele. Nesse sentido, este estudo propôs investigar a relação da cobertura florestal com a qualidade da água de microbacias agrícolas tropicais. Para tanto, foram selecionadas seis microbacias experimentais com diferentes porcentagens de cobertura florestal na bacia do rio Sarapuí, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil, onde foram feitas coletas de amostras de água por um ano hidrológico para a obtenção de parâmetros que representassem alterações na água induzidas por atividades antrópicas. Inicialmente as microbacias foram classificadas em \"florestadas\" e \"degradadas\", e modelos estatísticos multivariados foram aplicados para identificar diferenças entre os grupos. Em um segundo momento comparou-se a relação do uso e cobertura do solo na microbacia e na Área de Preservação Permanente (APP) com a qualidade da água utilizando-se modelos mistos e análise de redundância para identificar os principais fatores que influenciam a variabilidade da qualidade da água. Por último foi gerado um modelo hidrológico para simular o impacto da restauração da floresta ripária na qualidade da água da bacia do rio Sarapuí onde cada microbacia experimental desse estudo foi representada por uma sub-bacia do modelo. Os resultados mostram que as microbacias degradadas apresentam valores maiores de sólidos, turbidez, nutrientes e coliformes. Além disso, apresentam maior variabilidade temporal dos dados em relação às microbacias florestadas associada às alterações da vazão do rio. Em geral, a cobertura florestal foi relacionada à boa qualidade da água, enquanto que agricultura e ocupação urbana foram os usos do solo responsáveis pela degradação da qualidade da água. O uso pastagem apresentou impactos mistos, porém no geral não foi correlacionado à qualidade da água ruim. Os parâmetros de qualidade da água responderam de forma diferente quanto à influência dos padrões de uso e cobertura do solo na microbacia e na APP, porém, considerando-se todos parâmetros em conjunto, a qualidade da água é melhor explicada pela composição da paisagem da microbacia. Ainda assim, a simulação do modelo indicou que a restauração das APPs reduz a carga de sedimentos e nutrientes para o rio. Com isso, conclui-se que a floresta tropical tem papel fundamental na conservação dos recursos hídricos, reduzindo impactos das atividades humanas exercidas nas microbacias e que, apesar da importância das APPs na redução de poluentes para o rio, o manejo de bacias com estratégias de restauração florestal para toda a microbacia é extremamente importante para a manutenção da qualidade da água para abastecimento.

O objetivo precípuo desta investigação foi potencializar ações em educação ambiental e efetuar uma análise multivariada da percepção ambiental de diferentes grupos sociais como instrumentos de apoio à gestão de pequenas bacias. Este trabalho foi norteado por pesquisa-ação, baseado em pesquisas qualitativa, quantitativa e estudo de caso da microbacia do córrego da Capituva, Macedônia, SP. As metodologias foram divididas nas fases: exploratória ― escolha e caracterização da área de estudo e público alvo, histórico da ocupação e dinâmica do desenvolvimento do município; estudo preliminar e de diagnóstico ― caracterização da estrutura fundiária e dos usuários da terra, sistema de produção agrícola, caracterização da qualidade ambiental e análise multivariada de dados e; ações em educação ambiental. Optar pela participação de produtores rurais na pesquisa, teve o propósito de identificar problemas concretos, definir prioridades, escolher soluções viáveis em função das condições sócio-econômicas e do saber popular existente. Envolver professores, alunos e profissionais do município em ações de educação ambiental, teve por objetivo verificar a percepção da comunidade e despertar seu interesse e participação em projetos de proteção e recuperação de recursos naturais. A investigação mostrou que a população identifica os principais problemas ambientais, mas necessita informações de saneamento básico e técnicas para alterações no processo produtivo para possíveis soluções preventivas e corretivas. Esses produtores rurais, segmentos sociais diretamente onerados pelo ato de gestão ambiental, não têm condições para intervir em processo decisório. Os processos de gestão são complexos, por envolverem profundos conflitos entre os diversos usuários das bacias e por não estarem em consonância com a realidade econômica da maioria desses produtores. Os proprietários rurais não formam categoria homogênea: possuem características, opiniões e sistemas produtivos diversos. Por isso, este trabalho propõe que as intervenções educacionais sejam amplas o suficiente para contemplar diversos públicos e procedimentos. A participação dos alunos foi estimuladora; dado seu interesse no assunto, eles expressaram grande preocupação com o córrego e sua nascente. Desse modo, acreditamos ter contribuído para: o processo de gestão de microbacias; o estudo do meio ambiente com tema centralizado em microbacia; prover algumas necessidades de informações de problemas ambientais na microbacia; e reconhecer problemas existentes. O instrumental estatístico usado ― via análise fatorial de correspondência múltipla e análise de Cluster ― permitiu mostrar a complexidade da realidade estudada pela identificação de três tipos de produtores rurais. O que foi depreendido nesta investigação, revela que esses métodos estatísticos constituem interessante caminho metodológico para estudos futuros sobre percepção, avaliação e análise de impactos ambientais, sociais e econômicos / The main objective was oriented procedures in environmental education and to make perception environmental of different social group multivariable data analysis. This work was focused on field research, qualitative and quantitative research and, the Capituva watershed study. The methodology was divided into three stages: the exploratory – choice and characterization of the study area and the people involved in it; the preliminary and diagnostic study ― characterization of the landed system, the land users, the system of agricultural production, and the environmental quality and multivariable data analysis; the environmental education procedures. The participation of rural producers in this research had the purpose of identifying actual problems, determining priorities, and finding solutions considering their socioeconomic conditions and rudimentary knowledge. The enrollment of municipal district teachers, students, and professionals in the environmental education procedures was intended to verify the community's perception, and stimulate their interest and participation in projects of environment management. This investigation has showed that the population can identify their main environmental problems, but they need information on basic sanitation and techniques to alter their production process to acquire feasible, preventive and corrective solutions. These rural producers are socially harmed and directly overburdened by the environment management procedures and they cannot take part in the decision-making processes. Management processes are complex because they involve conflicts among the several users of the basins and also because they are not fairly consistent with the economic reality of rural producers. This project focuses on assisting these producers to overcome the difficulties enabling them to reach a consensus, to develop the habit of cooperation, and to receive fair subsidies so that the small producers can implement their goals. The land owners are not a homogeneous category. They have different characteristics, opinions and productive systems. In view of this, this study suggests the educational sector to take an effective action to benefit the producers. The participation of the students was exciting since they expressed interest in the subject and concern about the stream of Capituva. Thus, we believe to have contributed towards the process of watershed management, the study of the environment focusing on watersheds, the provision of relevant information about the watershed environmental problems, and the acknowledgement of difficulties. The statistics multiple correspondence factorial analysis and Cluster analysis permitted to identify three groups rural producers and to show methodological procedure to study environment impact, social and economic analysis