This thesis presents the results of wind tunnel experiments performed for various model wind turbine arrays. The aim is to understand how siting affects power output. To optimize wind farm efficiency the experiments vary the parameters of the model wind turbines and the layout of the wind turbine array. The parameters include the alignment, height, spacing, and the rotational direction of the model wind turbines. These experiments employ mechanical torque sensors to simultaneously measure the torque and rotor angular velocity, which yields a direct measurement of the fluid mechanical power extracted by the turbine at multiple locations. For a 4 × 3 array, the power is calculated at the center turbine in each of the rows. Variations in wind farm efficiency ranging from 55% to 90% are observed between the 13 different layouts tested. Modifications to the layout of the wind turbine array clearly affects the power output of the wind turbines downstream. The results of such experiments highlight the importance of studying the relationship between wind farm layout and power output.

The global climate threat has intensified Sweden’s ambitions to build wind power stations. This thesis explores the planning of, and opposition to, wind power in the inland rural and forest regions of Sweden. It is in these autonomous communities that the plans are implemented and the aim of the thesis was to, from a local perspective, understand and analyse the planning and acceptance challenges that large-scale wind power development faces in places that are both sparsely populated and have good wind conditions. This thesis is based on qualitative methods and was conducted as two studies. The case study area comprises four municipalities in Dalarna County. The first study analyses the planning and establishment process in three municipalities using interviews and an analysis method called process tracing. The second study analyses one wind power establishment, in which the interviews form the basis for a discourse analytical approach. One striking finding highlights the relationship between the global and the local. Global environment and energy aspects are absent in the local process, and wind power becomes a technical land issue that clashes with other local land interests. Another finding of the study reveals that planning for wind power establishment follows a rational planning tradition. The feelings and memories of the individual – different views regarding the landscape – play a background role in the formal permit process, while measurable observable conditions have a more prominent role. Wind power developers thereby acquire a more significant position than what they probably would have had if the planning had included local residents’ views on wind power in the landscape at an early stage.

A robust model predictive control algorithm is presented that explicitly handles multiplicative, or parametric, uncertainty in linear discrete models over a finite horizon. The uncertainty in the predicted future states and inputs is bounded by polytopes. The computational cost of running the controller is reduced by calculating matrices offline that provide a means to construct outer approximations to robust constraints to be applied online. The robust algorithm is extended to problems of uncertain models with an allowed probability of violation of constraints. The probabilistic degrees of satisfaction are approximated by one-step ahead sampling, with a greedy solution to the resulting mixed integer problem. An algorithm is given to enlarge a robustly invariant terminal set to exploit the probabilistic constraints. Exponential basis functions are used to create a Robust MPC algorithm for which the predictions are defined over the infinite horizon. The control degrees of freedom are weights that define the bounds on the state and input uncertainty when multiplied by the basis functions. The controller handles multiplicative and additive uncertainty. Robust MPC is applied to the problem of wind turbine control. Rotor speed and tower oscillations are controlled by a low sample rate robust predictive controller. The prediction model has multiplicative and additive uncertainty due to the uncertainty in short-term future wind speeds and in model linearisation. Robust MPC is compared to nominal MPC by means of a high-fidelity numerical simulation of a wind turbine under the two controllers in a wide range of simulated wind conditions.

The global climate threat has intensified Sweden’s ambitions to build wind power stations. This thesis explores the planning of, and opposition to, wind power in the inland rural and forest regions of Sweden. It is in these autonomous communities that the plans are implemented and the aim of the thesis was to, from a local perspective, understand and analyse the planning and acceptance challenges that large-scale wind power development faces in places that are both sparsely populated and have good wind conditions. This thesis is based on qualitative methods and was conducted as two studies. The case study area comprises four municipalities in Dalarna County. The first study analyses the planning and establishment process in three municipalities using interviews and an analysis method called process tracing. The second study analyses one wind power establishment, in which the interviews form the basis for a discourse analytical approach. One striking finding highlights the relationship between the global and the local. Global environment and energy aspects are absent in the local process, and wind power becomes a technical land issue that clashes with other local land interests. Another finding of the study reveals that planning for wind power establishment follows a rational planning tradition. The feelings and memories of the individual – different views regarding the landscape – play a background role in the formal permit process, while measurable observable conditions have a more prominent role. Wind power developers thereby acquire a more significant position than what they probably would have had if the planning had included local residents’ views on wind power in the landscape at an early stage.

Dentre as diversas fontes de energia renovável que existem atualmente, a energia eólica é a que tem apresentado o maior crescimento nos Sistemas Elétricos de Potência (SEPs). A flutuação de potência da geração eólica, no entanto, tem causado grandes desafios no que diz respeito à Qualidade da Energia Elétrica (QEE) e à operação do SEP. O grande progresso dos Sistemas de Armazenamento de Energia (SAEs), aliado à crescente inserção de geração eólica nos SEPs, tem promovido grande interesse na utilização dos SAEs junto aos aerogeradores. Este trabalho apresenta a utilização de um SAE, conectado ao elo CC do conversor back-to-back do aerogerador, e uma técnica de controle baseada na lógica fuzzy para suavizar as variações da potência de curto prazo da geração eólica. A técnica de controle proposta também é utilizada para gerenciar o Estado de Carga (SOC) do SAE para evitar a condição sobrecarregada e totalmente descarregada. O controle fuzzy é testado e comparado com uma técnica de controle convencional e também com a topologia típica do aerogerador, onde não é utilizado o SAE. As técnicas são avaliadas e comparadas com base em diferentes indicadores numéricos da qualidade da suavização. Um simulador digital em tempo real (RTDSR) é utilizado para realizar as simulações, onde é considerado um aerogerador de 2 MW, um supercapacitor e uma microrrede baseada no benchmark do CIGRÉ de média tensão. Os resultados mostraram que as técnicas de controle do supercapacitor possibilitaram uma adequada suavização de potência da geração eólica e puderam contribuir para a QEE e a operação da microrrede. A técnica inteligente baseada no controlador fuzzy mostrou resultados superiores à técnica convencional e, portanto, apresentou grande potencial para a aplicação. / Among several renewable energy sources existing nowadays, wind energy has presented the largest growth in power systems. The wind power fluctuations, however, has brought great challenges concerning Power Quality (PQ) and power system operation. The great progress of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs), together with the increasing penetration of wind power worldwide, has lead to a great interest in the use of ESS in wind energy. This study presents the application of a ESS, connected to the DC link of the backto- back converter of the wind turbine, and a control technique based on fuzzy logic to smooth out the short-term wind power fluctuations. The proposed control technique is also used to manage the State of Charge (SOC) of the ESS to avoid the overcharged and undercharged states. The fuzzy control is tested and compared with a conventional control technique and also with the typical wind turbine topology, where the ESS is not used. The techniques are evaluated and compared based on different quantitative indicators that represent the quality of the power smoothing. Simulations are carried out in the Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDSR), where a 2 MW wind turbine, a supercapacitor and a microgrid system based on the CIGRÉ medium voltage benchmark are considered. The results have shown that the control techniques of the supercapacitor permitted a suitable smoothing of the fluctuating wind power and contributed to the microgrid PQ and operation. The intelligent control technique based on the fuzzy logic has shown superior performance compared to the conventional technique and, therefore, presented great potential for application.

Nesta tese apresenta-se o desenvolvimento de diversos modelos computacionais de turbinas eólicas equipadas com diferentes tipos de geradores elétricos, com ênfase no gerador de indução duplamente alimentado. Tais modelos foram desenvolvidos para investigar o desempenho de diferentes estratégias de controle, bem como diferentes estratégias do uso do sistema de proteção do conversor AC/DC/AC. Desenvolveu-se adicionalmente um método analítico para investigar a estabilidade de geradores de indução duplamente alimentados durante grandes perturbações na rede elétrica. Tal método foi validado por meio de comparações entre os resultados da aplicação das fórmulas propostas e de simulações, utilizando uma simplificação dos modelos dinâmicos desenvolvidos. Considerando os modelos dinâmicos, os resultados obtidos por simulações mostram que as escolhas adequadas da estratégia de controle e do sistema de proteção permitem maior injeção de potência reativa durante curto-circuitos na rede elétrica. O método analítico proposto apresentou resultados suficientemente precisos para análise da estabilidade frente a grandes perturbações, reduzindo o esforço necessário para realização de simulações dinâmicas sem a necessidade de compra de licenças de programas específicos. / The development of computational models of wind turbines equipped with different electrical machines is presented in this thesis, emphasizing the doubly fed induction generator. Such models were developed to investigate the performance of different control strategies as well as different protection system of the back-to-back converters. Additionally, this thesis present an original analytic method to investigate the stability of doubly fed induction generators during large disturbance on the electric system. The methodology is validated by comparing results from the developed dynamic models to the results from the analytical equations. For the dynamic models, the obtained results by simulations show that the chosen of the appropriate control strategies and the protection system can permit more reactive power injection during short circuits in the network. The proposed analytic method is sufficiently precise to analyze large disturbance stability reducing the necessary effort spending on dynamic simulation without the need of buying a specific license to run the software.

Este trabalho apresenta um sistema de controle com o objetivo de atenuar as ondulações do torque eletromagnético considerando os harmônicos de quinta, sétima, décima primeira e décima terceira ordem da tensão do estator do Gerador de Indução Duplamente Alimentado (GIDA). Dessa maneira, propõe-se a utilização de controladores proporcional-integrativo vetoriais juntamente com um sistema de identificação dos componentes harmônicos da corrente do estator empregando a transformada discreta de Fourier. O trabalho aborda a influência dos harmônicos de quinta, sétima, décima primeira e décima terceira ordem da tensão do estator nos harmônicos da corrente do estator, nas ondulações do torque eletromagnético e nas potências ativa e reativa do estator. Resultados de simulação avaliam o controlador proposto em condições adversas: variações paramétricas e da frequência da rede, além da influência de atrasos na corrente do estator. Finalmente, resultados experimentais validam o sistema proposto. / This work presents a vector controller with the objective of reducing the electromagnetic torque and the active and reactive powers of the stator by means of control of the harmonics of the stator current in harmonic conditions of fifth, seventh, eleventh and thirteenth order of the stator voltage. The objective of the work is to propose a controller that uses two techniques already consolidated in the literature, proportional-integrative and discrete Fourier transform, besides being robust the main disadvantages of the existing harmonic controllers in the literature that are dependencies of the parameters of the machine and the Frequency of the network beyond the influence of the stator current delays on the harmonic controller. First, the influence of the fifth, seventh, eleventh, eleventh and thirteenth order harmonics of the stator voltage on the harmonics of the stator current and on the undulations of the electromagnetic torque and the active and reactive powers of the stator are studied. Next, simulation results evaluate the proposed controller under adverse conditions: parametric variations and the frequency of the network, besides the influence of stator current delays. Finally, experimental results validate the controller under conditions that the controller reference is nonzero.

A busca por novas fontes de energia e os impactos causados pelas formas tradicionais de geração elétrica têm levado a uma procura por fontes de energia mais limpas que complementem seus parques energéticos. O aumento do consumo e a crescente pressão econômica e ambiental têm justificado um planejamento mais rigoroso quanto ao uso de fontes alternativas de energia como a eólica. O Brasil apresenta um favorável cenário de recursos naturais para a instalação de usinas eólicas. No entanto, o que se observa no setor elétrico é uma tímida participação da energia eólica na matriz energética brasileira. Passados cinco anos desde a implantação do PROINFA, apenas 20% da demanda selecionada está em operação. Diversas barreiras, econômicas, ambientais e políticas são empecilhos apresentados pelos agentes do setor para justificar esta lenta caminhada. A discussão que objetiva este trabalho é apresentar e analisar as barreiras encontradas para o desenvolvimento da energia eólica no Brasil. / The search for new energy sources and the impacts caused by traditional forms of electriityc generation, have led to a demand for cleaner sources of energy that complement its energy parks. The increase in consumption, and economic increasing and the environmental pressure have justified a schedule tougher on the use of alternative energy sources such as wind. Brazil presents a favorable scenario for natural resources and the installation of wind power plants. Nevertheless, which is observed in the electric industry is a timid participation of wind energy in the Brazilian energy matrix. After five years since the deployment of PROINFA only 20% of demand is selected in operation. Several barriers, economic, environmental and political impediments are presented by the players in the industry to justify the slow walk. The discussion that objective this work is to present and analyse the barriers encountered in the development of wind energy in Brazil.

A participação da energia eólica na geração de energia elétrica tem apresentado incremento importante nos últimos anos e a tendência é de representar 11,6% da capacidade instalada brasileira em 2024, segundo a Empresa de Pesquisa Energética (EPE). Hoje, nos modelos de otimização para o despacho das usinas no atendimento da carga de energia do sistema, a energia eólica, assim como as pequenas centrais hidrelétricas e a energia a biomassa, são abatidas da carga de forma determinística, não representando a incerteza na produção dessas usinas. Dada a variabilidade na geração de energia eólica, devido às variações nas velocidades dos ventos e considerando o aumento da participação eólica na matriz de eletricidade brasileira, fato que realça a relevância da fonte, este trabalho desenvolve uma representação estocástica da geração eólica a partir de dados históricos reconstruídos de velocidades de vento de 16 coordenadas do Brasil, em especial das regiões Nordeste e Sul. Os valores de velocidade de vento são transformados em energia eólica através de curvas de potência de turbinas e as usinas eólicas são representadas como se fossem usinas hidráulicas a fio d água no modelo de otimização Newave. A representação do histórico de geração eólica é feita através de vazões nos rios, considerando-se também a expansão no horizonte até 2020. O trabalho tem como base os dados do Newave oficial de agosto de 2016. Com a simulação do modelo considerando-se as séries históricas e sintéticas, o trabalho simula o despacho das usinas, o comportamento dos custos marginais, verificando-se as diferenças no comportamento dessas variáveis quando se utiliza uma representação estocástica para a energia eólica, em comparação com a modelagem determinística utilizada hoje. / Wind power has an increasing share of the Brazilian energy market and has the potential to represent 11.6% of the total capacity by 2024, according to Energy Research Company (EPE). The current optimization models, that dispatch power plants to meet demand, only optimize the demand using hydroelectric and thermal power plants. The remaining sources of generation including wind power, small hydroelectric plants and biomass plants, are not part of the optimization model and are included deterministically. There is variability in wind power generation because of wind speeds variations and considering the increase of the wind power share in the Brazilian electricity matrix, which stresses its importance, this work evaluates a stochastic representation for wind power generation through historical wind speed data of 16 coordinates from the Northeast and South of Brazil. It proposes to introduce wind power plants into the optimization model called Newave by proxy of run-of-river hydropower plants and their inflow. This study also considers wind power expansion in Brazil up to 2020 and the database is the official Newave as of August 2016. This work aims to verify the dispatches of the power plants and the marginal costs, considering the differences between the model used today and the stochastic model presented in the study.

Com o aumento da penetração da energia eólica nos sistemas de potência, critérios cada vez mais rigorosos vem sendo estabelecidos ao longo do tempo para a conexão e operação das plantas eólicas nas redes elétricas. A evolução das tecnologias empregadas em turbinas possibilitou o atendimento a esses critérios, passando do conceito dinamarquês de turbinas de velocidade fixa para turbinas de velocidade variável, que possibilitam melhor aproveitamento da energia disponível nos ventos e maior capacidade de controle das grandezas envolvidas. Neste trabalho, foram analisados diferentes tipos de controle de um gerador de indução duplamente alimentado (DFIG) e a influência dessa máquina nos níveis de tensão de uma rede de subtransmissão à qual está conectada. Os resultados mostram que os tipos de controles indicados para a operação da planta eólica podem variar sensivelmente de acordo com o carregamento e a velocidade do vento em um determinado momento. O crescimento de carga esperado da rede também pode influenciar na estratégia de controle da planta. / With the increased penetration of wind energy in electrical power systems, increasingly stringent grid codes have been stablished over time for the connection and operation of wind power plants. The evolution of the technologies applied in wind turbines allowed meeting these criteria, moving from the Danish concept of fixed-speed turbines to variable-speed wind turbines, which enable better use of the available wind power and greater control of the variables involved. This study analyzes different control strategies of a doubly-fed induction generation (DFIG) and the influence of this machine in the voltage profile of a subtransmission system to which it is connected. The results show that the types of control suitable for the operation of the wind power plant may vary considerably according to the load and the wind speed at a given time. The expected load growth of the network can also influence in power plant control strategy.