No presente trabalho o bagaço de cana-de-açúcar foi pré-tratado quimiotermomecanicamente (QTM) com três concentrações de solução sulfito alcalino (g/100 g de bagaço): 2,5% Na2SO3 e 1,25% NaOH (QTM2,5%); 5% Na2SO3 e 2,5% NaOH (QTM5%), 10% Na2SO3 e 5% NaOH (QTM10%), e posteriormente refinado num refinador de discos, visando incrementar a acessibilidade da parede celular para extrair enzimaticamente as hemiceluloses. O bagaço também foi pré-tratado com clorito ácido por 2 horas (D2) e 4 horas (D4), para gerar um substrato modelo com baixo teor de lignina. A composição original do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar foi de 32,3% de celulose, 28,5% de hemicelulose e 22,0% de lignina (g/100 g de bagaço original). Depois de pré-tratados, as remoções de lignina foram de 18%; 31% e 48% para os bagaços QTM2,5%, QTM5% e QTM10%, respectivamente. Parte das hemiceluloses foi removida, em níveis de 22% para os bagaços QTM2,5% e QTM5% e 17% para o QTM10%. O pré-tratamento clorito ácido removeu lignina em níveis de 55% e 75% para os bagaços D2 e D4, respectivamente; e 10% da hemicelulose no bagaço D4. As hemiceluloses de todos os bagaços pré-tratados foram extraídas com 3 diferentes preparados de endo-xilanases comerciais, usando 20UI/g de bagaço, em pH=8.0 (tampão fosfato 50 mM), 50°C e uma relação sólido:líquido de 1:20. Após 24h de reação, a xilanase Luminase apresentou os melhores rendimentos de extração de xilana com valores de: 4%, 7% e 32% para os bagaços QTM2,5%, QTM5% e QTM10%, respectivamente; e de: 34% e 55% para os bagaços D2 e D4, respectivamente. A extração se correlacionou linearmente com a remoção de lignina (R2=0,97) e ácidos hidroxicinâmicos (R2=0,88 para ácido ferúlico; R2=0,80 para ácido p-coumárico), e com o aumento da área superficial accessível de celulose (R2=0,95). Não foi observada a produção de açúcares monoméricos nas xilanas extraídas. Aumentando a carga enzimática em 20 vezes (100 UI) no bagaço QTM10% e em 12 vezes (60 UI) no bagaço D4 a extração da xilana aumentou 29% e 21%, respectivamente, sugerindo que além da lignina e ácidos hidroxicinâmicos, existem outros impedimentos a extração. O bagaço QTM10% foi extraído sequencialmente duas vezes com 100UI de Luminase por grama de bagaço, e posteriormente sacarificado com celulases comerciais. Os resultados mostraram que primeiro são extraídas as xilanas mais substituídas com arabinose e que a extração da xilana favorece a sacarificação da celulose residual, quando comparado com um material simplesmente pré-tratado. Entretanto, para aceder a toda a xilana do bagaço, é necessário hidrolisar parte da celulose, indicando que o pré-tratamento QTM10% não consegue quebrar por completo a alta interação celulose-hemicelulose. A pré-incubação do bagaço QTM10% por 8h com endoglucanase, seguida da reação com xilanase por 24h, aumentou a extração de xilana em 17,6%. As xilanas extraídas podem ser recuperadas por precipitação com etanol. Análises de ressonância magnética nuclear mostraram que a xilana extraída corresponde a glucurono-arabinoxilana, sendo detectados também ácido pcoumárico, baixas quantidades de lignina e proteínas, derivados do processo de extração. / In the present work, the sugarcane bagasse was pretreated with a chemithermomechanically (CTM) process using three concentrations alkaline-sulfite solution (g/100 g of bagasse): 2,5% Na2SO3 e 1,25% NaOH (QTM2,5%); 5% Na2SO3 e 2,5% NaOH (QTM5%), 10% Na2SO3 e 5% NaOH (QTM2,5%), and disk refining with the aim of increasing cell wall accessibility for subsequent extraction of the hemicellulose fraction. Besides, bagasse was delignified with acidic sodium chlorite for 2 hours (D2) and 4 hours (D4), to produce a model with low lignin content. The original composition of sugarcane bagasse was 38.3% of cellulose, 28.5% of hemicellulose and 22.0% of lignin (g/100 g of original bagasse). After pretreatment, the lignin removal were 18%; 31% e 48% for the bagasse CTM2,5%, CTM5% e CTM10%, respectively. A part of the hemicellulose was removed at levels of 22% for the bagasse CTM2,5%, CTM5% and 17% for QTM10%. Acid chlorite pretreatment removed lignin at 55% and 75% levels for D2 and D4, respectively; and 10% of hemicellulose in D4 bagasse. Hemicelluloses from all pre-treated bagasses were extracted with 3 different commercial endoxylanases preparations using 20UI/g of bagasse, at pH 8.0 (phosphate buffer 50 mM), 50°C and solid:liquid ratio of 1:20. After 24h of reaction, Luminase xylanase showed the best xylan extraction yields of: 4%, 7% and 32% for QTM2,5%, QTM5% and QTM10%, respectively; and of: 34% and 55% for D2 and D4, respectively. The xylan extraction correlated linearly with lignin (R2=0.97) and hidroxicinamic acid (R2=0.88 for ferulic acid; R2=0.80 for p-coumaric acid) removal, and with the increase of accessible surface area of the cellulose (R2=0.95). The production of monomeric sugars in the extracted xylan was not observed. Increasing enzimatic loading by 20 times (100 UI) for the bagasse CTM10% and 12 times (60 UI/) for the D4 bagasse, the xylan extraction was increased 29% and 21%, respectively, suggesting that besides lignin and hydroxycinnamic acids, there are other impediments to enzymatic extraction. The QTM10% bagasse was extracted sequentially twice with 100UI of Luminase per gram of bagasse, and then saccharified with commercial cellulases. The results showed that the xylanes most substituted with arabinose are extracted first and that the extraction of the xylan favors the saccharification of the residual cellulose as compared to a simply pretreated material. However, to access all the bagasse xylan, it is necessary to hydrolyze part of the cellulose, because the QTM10% pretreatment was not enough to completely disintegrate the high cellulose-hemicellulose interaction. Pre-incubation of the QTM10% bagasse for 8h with endoglucanase, followed by xylanase reaction for 24h, increased the xylan extraction by 17.6%. Extracted xylans were recovered by precipitation with ethanol and characterized. Chemical and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis showed that extracted xylan corresponds to a glucurono-arabinoxylan with residues of p-coumaric acid and low amounts of lignin and proteins, derived from the extraction process.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo a caracterização da xilanase presente no extrato bruto de Bacillus pumilus, com a finalidade de usá-la na extração de xilana do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. Foram testados dois meios de cultura em pHs 8,5 e 9,5 com diferentes substratos. As maiores atividades de xilanase foram produzidas em xilana comercial de oat spelts (228 U/mL) e em farelo de trigo (220 U/mL), no pH 8,5. Independentemente das condições de cultivo empregada, não foi detectada atividades de &szlig;-xilosidase, &szlig;-glicosidase e arabinofuranosidase e a produção de endoglucanase foi baixa (< 0,7 U/mL). O perfil de proteínas em eletroforese foi amplo, e a banda com 23 kDa correspondeu a uma xilanase. A xilanase apresentou pH ótimo na faixa de 7-8, temperatura ótima entre 45-50 ºC e se apresentou mais estável a 40 ºC (pH8,0). A hidrólise de xilanas comerciais produziu xilotriose, xilotetraose, xilopentaose e xilo-oligossacarídeos (XOS) com massas maiores, que não foram identificados por cromatografia em camada fina (TLC). A influência de vários fatores, tais como a carga de xilanase, tipo de substrato, temperatura e a adição de vários compostos foi avaliada no rendimento de extração de xilanas desde o bagaço de cana-de-açúcar prétratado. O extrato bruto de B. pumilus, rico em xilanases, foi aplicado em um bagaço pré-tratado com sulfito/álcali, e em um bagaço deslignificado por clorito em meio ácido, evidenciando que a menor quantidade de lignina residual como principal fator para aumentar a extração de xilana, aumentando a extração de 4,2 para 42,5%. A lavagem extensiva do material pré-tratado com sulfito alcalino também auxiliou no aumento do rendimento de xilana, de 18,5 para 25,1 %. Foram testadas outras alternativas para aumentar o rendimento de hidrólise da xilana do bagaço pré-tratado, sem a necessidade da lavagem do material. A reutilização do licor sulfito alcalino, a adição de tween 80, polietileno glicol, albumina não favoreceram a extração de xilanas, enquanto que a adição de MgSO4 teve um pequeno efeito positivo na extração da xilana (de 18% para 20,9 %). A extração alcalina a frio, realizada após a extração enzimática, influenciou positivamente o rendimento de extração da xilana do bagaço pré-tratado com 10% Na2SO3/5%NaOH. A extração de xilana obtido pela aplicação de xilanase (20 U/g) seguida da extração com 20% de NaOH produziu o mesmo resultado que utilizando apenas NaOH (70%), de 24,1 e 24,9 %, respectivamente. A extração enzimática da xilana permitiu a obtenção de um resíduo com características favoráveis para a completa sacarificação, com Cellic CTec2 na carga de 10 FPU/g de material. / The present work aimed to characterize the xylanase present in the crude extract of Bacillus pumilus, with the purpose of using it in the xylan extraction of the sugarcane bagasse. Two culture media were tested at pHs 8.5 and 9.5 with different substrates. The highest xylanase activities were produced in commercial xylan oat spelled (228 U / mL) and wheat bran (220 U / mL) at pH 8.5. Regardless of the culture conditions employed, &szlig;xylosidase, &szlig;-glycosidase and arabinofuranosidase activities were not detected and endoglucanase production was low (<0.7 U/mL). The protein profile on electrophoresis was extensive, and the 23 kDa band corresponded to a xylanase. The xylanase presented optimum pH in the range of 7-8, optimal temperature between 45-50ºC and was more stable at 40 ºC (pH8.0). Hydrolysis of commercial xylanes produced xylotriose, xylotetraose, xylopentaose and xylooligosaccharides (XOS) with larger masses, which were not identified by thin layer chromatography (TLC). The influence of various factors, such as xylanase loading, substrate type, temperature and the addition of various compounds was evaluated in the xylan extraction yield from the pretreated sugarcane bagasse. The crude extract of B. pumilus, rich in xylanases, was applied to a bagasse pretreated with sulfite/alkali, and to a bagasse delignified by chlorite in acid medium, showing that the lower amount of residual lignin as the main factor to increase the extracting xylan, increasing the extraction from 4.2 to 42.5%. Extensive washing of the alkaline sulfite pretreated material also assisted in increasing xylan yield, from 18.5 to 25.1%. Further alternatives were tested to increase the hydrolysis yield of pretreated bagasse xylan without the need for material washing. The reuse of the alkali sulfite liquor, the addition of tween 80, polyethylene glycol, albumin did not favor xylan extraction, while addition of MgSO4 had a small positive effect on xylan extraction (from 18% to 20.9%). The cold alkaline extraction, after enzymatic extraction, positively influenced the xylan extraction yield of the pretreated bagasse with 10% Na2SO3/5% NaOH. Extraction of xylan obtained by applying xylanase (20 U / g) followed by extraction with 20% NaOH produced the same result as using only NaOH (70%), 24.1 and 24.9%, respectively. The enzymatic extraction of xylan allowed to obtain a residue with favorable characteristics for the complete saccharification, with Cellic CTec2 in the load of 10 FPU / g of material.

Este trabalho visa a valorização da fração de xilana presente na polpa kraft branqueada de eucalipto como matéria prima para a produção de xilitol e derivados de xilose. O presente estudo é dividido em dois objetivos principais. A primeira parte é dedicada ao estudo da otimização do processo de extração da xilana da polpa kraft industrial. Para fazer este estudo foi estabelecido um planejamento fatorial utilizando como variáveis a concentração da solução de hidróxido de sódio, o tempo de extração e a razão sólido/líquido (polpa/solução). A resposta empregada para avaliar a eficiência das extrações foi o rendimento de xilana extraída. A melhor condição de extração foi obtida com solução de hidróxido de sódio 14% (m/v), 180 minutos e razão sólido/líquido de 0,06, resultando em 98% de xilana extraída. Na segunda parte, estudou-se o processo de recuperação da xilana a partir das soluções de extração por técnicas de precipitação utilizando ácidos e/ou álcoois. Devido à presença de impurezas no precipitado, estudou-se também o efeito da lavagem dos mesmos. A partir da caracterização das amostras isoladas pode-se concluir que as xilanas isoladas utilizando metanol, isopropanol, ácido clorídrico e ácido nítrico apresentaram graus de pureza comparáveis à de amostras comerciais de xilana. / This work aims the extraction of xylans present in bleached eucalyptus kraft pulp. The extracted xylans can be used as raw material for the production of xylitol and xylose derivatives. The study is divided in two main objectives: The first part is dedicated to optimize the conditions to extract xylan from industrial Kraft pulps. To achieve this, a factorial planning design was established using as variables the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution, extraction time and the solid (pulp) to solution ratio. The response to employed to evaluate the extraction efficiency was the recovery xylan yield. The best extraction condition was obtained with 14% (w/v) sodium hydroxide, 180 minutes and solid (pulp) to liquid ratio of 0.06, which lead to approximately 98% of xylan recovery yields. In the second part of this work, the recovery of the pure xylan from the aqueous solution was carried out by precipitation techniques using acids and / or alcohols. Due to the presence of impurities in the precipitates, it was also studied the effect of washing to purify the samples. From the characterization of the isolated samples it can be concluded that xylans precipitated by using methanol, isopropanol, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, produced xylans samples with similar level of purity when compared to the commercial standard xylan.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T19:24:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Juliana_Texto_completo.pdf: 2104939 bytes, checksum: ce60666190df07cee9975989d437d475 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-01-20 / Lignocellulosic materials are abundant in agro-industrial residues and by-products of agroindustry and can be used for fuels and other chemicals of commercial interest. An alternative to physical and chemical methods for bioconversion of lignocellulosic material is the use of enzymes produced by micro-organisms. The aquatic bacterium Gram negative Caulobacter crescentus presents biotechnological potential for the use of these residues because it contains in its genome several gene coding for enzymes involved in the metabolism of lignocellulosic materials, including 5 genes to β-Xylosidases. In this study, the gene xynB2 (1.5 kb) coding the C. crescentus β-Xylosidase II was cloned into the vector pJet1.2 (Fermentas) and subcloned in frame in the sites EcoRI/XbaI of expression vector pPROEXHta (Invitrogen). A histidine tail fusion protein was obtained after induction and expression of gene xynB2 in E. coli (DH10B) with IPTG (1 mM). The recombinant β-Xylosidase II (β-Xylrec- II) was purified by chromatography using nickel-Sepharose resin and a pure enzyme was characterized by biochemical kinetics parameters. A single band of 65 kDa was obtained by SDS-PAGE 9% for C. crescentus β-Xyl-rec-II purified, which showed a specific activity of 215 U / mg, pH optimum equal to 6, the optimum temperature of 55 °C and half life of 4 h at 50 °C. After 24 h incubation at pH 6 the enzyme retained 95% of activity. Most of the ions inhibited the activity of β-Xylosidase II, but a 32% increase was observed in the presence of KCl (2mM). The kinetic parameters KM and VMáx were equal to 8.4 mM and 370 moles / min, respectively. The ability of C. crescentus β-Xyl-rec-II hydrolyse xylan and sugarcane bagasse residue was assessed after incubation with these Xylanase purified from Aspergillus alliaceus. The relative percentage of hydrolysis products of xylan and sugar cane bagasse, increased 2.5 and 6.5 times, respectively, after incubation for 18 hours with C. crescentus β- Xyl-rec-II pure, thus highlighting the possibility of using this enzyme in biotechnological processes. In addition, β-Xil-rec-II was also used for the production of a polyclonal antibody in rabbit that showed by "Western blot" assay a highly specific recognition of the purified protein. In order to investigate the role of xynB2 gene to C. crescentus, two mutants were obtained. The first one was constructed by insertion of a spectinomycin resistance cassette into the xynB2 gene by double homologous recombination, generating a null mutant strain named RSJU-2. The second one was obtained by cloning of xynB2 gene under the control of the inducible xylose promoter generating a strain denominated pMOA. β-Xylosidase activity was measured in the RSJU-2, pMOA and parental strain (NA1000) cells of C. crescentus which were grown in the absence and in the presence of different agro-industrial residues and others carbon sources. The xynB2 gene depletion made cells more able to produce high activities of other β-Xylosidases in the presence of different residues, for instance, β- Xylosidase activity produced by RSJU-2 cells was almost 15 times higher than the activity showed by NA1000 in the presence of sugarcane bagasse. These results indicate that the absence o xynB2 gene up-regulates the expression of other β-Xylosidases in C. crescentus. On the other hand, a decreased activity of β-Xylosidase was observed in the strain pMOA, suggesting that the overexpression of β-Xylosidase II down-regulates C. crescentus β - Xylosidases activities. To verify that the variation in activity levels of β -Xylosidase occur as a consequence of variations in the levels of transcription of β-Xylosidases genes in different strains, we constructed a lacZ- fusion transcription by cloning the E. coli lacZ gene under the control of xynB2 gene promoter. Thus, the β-Galactosidase activity was measured as a function of xynB2 promoter activity. Tests of promoter activity by measuring the activity of β- Galactosidase in different strains showed that the xynB2 gene is transcription-dependent. / Materiais lignocelulósicos são abundantes em resíduos agroindustriais e subprodutos da agroindústria e podem ser usados para produção de combustíveis e outros químicos de interesse comercial. Uma alternativa aos métodos físicos e químicos para bioconversão de material lignocelulósico é o uso de enzimas produzidas por micro-organismos. A bactéria aquática Gram negativa Caulobacter crescentus apresenta potencial biotecnológico para o uso destes resíduos por conter em seu genoma vários genes que codificam para enzimas envolvidas com o metabolismo de materiais lignocelulósicos, incluindo 5 genes para β- Xilosidases. No presente trabalho o gene xynB2 (1,5 kb), que codifica para a β-xilosidade II de C. crescentus, foi clonado no vetor pJet1.2 (Fermentas) e subclonado em fase de leitura nos sítios EcoRI/XbaI do vetor de expressão pPROEX-HTa (Invitrogen). Uma proteína de fusão com cauda de histidinas foi obtida após indução da expressão do gene xynB2 em E. coli (DH10B) com IPTG (1mM). A β-xilosidade II recombinante (β-Xil-II-rec) foi purificada por cromatografia usando resina de níquel-sepharose e a enzima pura caracterizada quanto a parâmetros cinéticos e bioquímicos. Uma banda única de 65 KDa foi obtida em gel SDSPAGE 9% para a β-Xil-rec-II purificada de C. crescentus, a qual mostrou uma atividade específica de 215 U/mg, pH ótimo igual a 6, temperatura ótima de 55°C e meia vida de 4 horas a 50°C. Após 24 h de incubação em pH 6 a enzima reteve 95% da atividade inicial. A maioria dos íons inibiu a atividade de β-xilosidade II, mas um aumento de 32% foi observado na presença de KCl (2mM). Os parâmetros cinéticos KM e VMáx foram iguais a 8,4 mM e 370 moles/min, respectivamente. A capacidade da β-Xilosidase II recombinante pura de C. crescentus hidrolisar xilano e o resíduo bagaço de cana foi avaliada após incubação prévia destes com a Xilanase purificada de Aspergillus alliaceus. As porcentagens relativas de produtos de hidrólise do xilano e bagaço de cana-de-açúcar aumentaram 2,5 e 6,5 vezes, respectivamente, após incubação por 18 horas com a β-Xil-II-rec pura de C. crescentus, ressaltando assim, a possibilidade de aplicação desta enzima em processos biotecnológicos. Em adição, a β-Xil-II-rec foi usada para a produção de um anticorpo policlonal em coelho que mostrou por ensaios de Western Blot uma elevada especificidade para reconhecimento da proteína purificada. Paralelamente, com o objetivo de investigar o papel do gene xynB2 para C. crescentus, dois mutantes foram obtidos. O primeiro foi construído pela inserção de um cassete de resistência a espectinomicina dentro do gene xynB2 por dupla recombinação homóloga, gerando uma linhagem mutante nula denominada RSJU-2. Os segundo foi obtido por clonagem do gene xynB2 sob o controle de um promotor indutível por xilose gerando uma linhagem denominada pMOA. A atividade de β-Xilosidase foi mensurada nas células das linhagens RSJU-2, pMOA e parental (NA1000) de C. crescentus, as quais cresceram na ausência e presença de diferentes resíduos agroindustriais. A depleção do gene xynB2 fez as células mais hábeis a produzirem altas atividades de outras β-Xilosidases na presença de diferentes resíduos ou fontes de carbono. Estes resultados indicam que a ausência do gene xynB2 regula positivamente a expressão de outras β-Xilosidases em C. crescentus. Por outro lado, um decréscimo na atividade de β- Xilosidases foi observado na linhagem pMOA, sugerindo que a superexpressão da β- XilosidaseII regula negativamente a atividade de β-Xilosidases. Para verificar se a variação nos níveis de atividade de β-Xilosidase ocorre como um reflexo de variações nos níveis de transcrição de genes de β-Xilosidases nas diferentes cepas, foi construído uma fusão de transcrição a partir da clonagem do promotor do gene xynB2 a frente do gene lacZ de E. coli. Assim, foi quantificada a atividade de β-Galactosidase como uma medida da atividade do promotor do gene xynB2, o que demonstrou que gene xynB2 é dependente de transcrição.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-12T14:48:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Juliana_Texto_completo.pdf: 2104939 bytes, checksum: ce60666190df07cee9975989d437d475 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-01-20 / Lignocellulosic materials are abundant in agro-industrial residues and by-products of agroindustry and can be used for fuels and other chemicals of commercial interest. An alternative to physical and chemical methods for bioconversion of lignocellulosic material is the use of enzymes produced by micro-organisms. The aquatic bacterium Gram negative Caulobacter crescentus presents biotechnological potential for the use of these residues because it contains in its genome several gene coding for enzymes involved in the metabolism of lignocellulosic materials, including 5 genes to &#946;-Xylosidases. In this study, the gene xynB2 (1.5 kb) coding the C. crescentus &#946;-Xylosidase II was cloned into the vector pJet1.2 (Fermentas) and subcloned in frame in the sites EcoRI/XbaI of expression vector pPROEXHta (Invitrogen). A histidine tail fusion protein was obtained after induction and expression of gene xynB2 in E. coli (DH10B) with IPTG (1 mM). The recombinant &#946;-Xylosidase II (&#946;-Xylrec- II) was purified by chromatography using nickel-Sepharose resin and a pure enzyme was characterized by biochemical kinetics parameters. A single band of 65 kDa was obtained by SDS-PAGE 9% for C. crescentus &#946;-Xyl-rec-II purified, which showed a specific activity of 215 U / mg, pH optimum equal to 6, the optimum temperature of 55 °C and half life of 4 h at 50 °C. After 24 h incubation at pH 6 the enzyme retained 95% of activity. Most of the ions inhibited the activity of &#946;-Xylosidase II, but a 32% increase was observed in the presence of KCl (2mM). The kinetic parameters KM and VMáx were equal to 8.4 mM and 370 &#61549;moles / min, respectively. The ability of C. crescentus &#946;-Xyl-rec-II hydrolyse xylan and sugarcane bagasse residue was assessed after incubation with these Xylanase purified from Aspergillus alliaceus. The relative percentage of hydrolysis products of xylan and sugar cane bagasse, increased 2.5 and 6.5 times, respectively, after incubation for 18 hours with C. crescentus &#946;- Xyl-rec-II pure, thus highlighting the possibility of using this enzyme in biotechnological processes. In addition, &#946;-Xil-rec-II was also used for the production of a polyclonal antibody in rabbit that showed by "Western blot" assay a highly specific recognition of the purified protein. In order to investigate the role of xynB2 gene to C. crescentus, two mutants were obtained. The first one was constructed by insertion of a spectinomycin resistance cassette into the xynB2 gene by double homologous recombination, generating a null mutant strain named RSJU-2. The second one was obtained by cloning of xynB2 gene under the control of the inducible xylose promoter generating a strain denominated pMOA. &#946;-Xylosidase activity was measured in the RSJU-2, pMOA and parental strain (NA1000) cells of C. crescentus which were grown in the absence and in the presence of different agro-industrial residues and others carbon sources. The xynB2 gene depletion made cells more able to produce high activities of other &#946;-Xylosidases in the presence of different residues, for instance, &#946;- Xylosidase activity produced by RSJU-2 cells was almost 15 times higher than the activity showed by NA1000 in the presence of sugarcane bagasse. These results indicate that the absence o xynB2 gene up-regulates the expression of other &#946;-Xylosidases in C. crescentus. On the other hand, a decreased activity of &#946;-Xylosidase was observed in the strain pMOA, suggesting that the overexpression of &#946;-Xylosidase II down-regulates C. crescentus &#946; - Xylosidases activities. To verify that the variation in activity levels of &#946; -Xylosidase occur as a consequence of variations in the levels of transcription of &#946;-Xylosidases genes in different strains, we constructed a lacZ- fusion transcription by cloning the E. coli lacZ gene under the control of xynB2 gene promoter. Thus, the &#946;-Galactosidase activity was measured as a function of xynB2 promoter activity. Tests of promoter activity by measuring the activity of &#946;- Galactosidase in different strains showed that the xynB2 gene is transcription-dependent. / Materiais lignocelulósicos são abundantes em resíduos agroindustriais e subprodutos da agroindústria e podem ser usados para produção de combustíveis e outros químicos de interesse comercial. Uma alternativa aos métodos físicos e químicos para bioconversão de material lignocelulósico é o uso de enzimas produzidas por micro-organismos. A bactéria aquática Gram negativa Caulobacter crescentus apresenta potencial biotecnológico para o uso destes resíduos por conter em seu genoma vários genes que codificam para enzimas envolvidas com o metabolismo de materiais lignocelulósicos, incluindo 5 genes para &#946;- Xilosidases. No presente trabalho o gene xynB2 (1,5 kb), que codifica para a &#946;-xilosidade II de C. crescentus, foi clonado no vetor pJet1.2 (Fermentas) e subclonado em fase de leitura nos sítios EcoRI/XbaI do vetor de expressão pPROEX-HTa (Invitrogen). Uma proteína de fusão com cauda de histidinas foi obtida após indução da expressão do gene xynB2 em E. coli (DH10B) com IPTG (1mM). A &#946;-xilosidade II recombinante (&#946;-Xil-II-rec) foi purificada por cromatografia usando resina de níquel-sepharose e a enzima pura caracterizada quanto a parâmetros cinéticos e bioquímicos. Uma banda única de 65 KDa foi obtida em gel SDSPAGE 9% para a &#946;-Xil-rec-II purificada de C. crescentus, a qual mostrou uma atividade específica de 215 U/mg, pH ótimo igual a 6, temperatura ótima de 55°C e meia vida de 4 horas a 50°C. Após 24 h de incubação em pH 6 a enzima reteve 95% da atividade inicial. A maioria dos íons inibiu a atividade de &#946;-xilosidade II, mas um aumento de 32% foi observado na presença de KCl (2mM). Os parâmetros cinéticos KM e VMáx foram iguais a 8,4 mM e 370 &#61549;moles/min, respectivamente. A capacidade da &#946;-Xilosidase II recombinante pura de C. crescentus hidrolisar xilano e o resíduo bagaço de cana foi avaliada após incubação prévia destes com a Xilanase purificada de Aspergillus alliaceus. As porcentagens relativas de produtos de hidrólise do xilano e bagaço de cana-de-açúcar aumentaram 2,5 e 6,5 vezes, respectivamente, após incubação por 18 horas com a &#946;-Xil-II-rec pura de C. crescentus, ressaltando assim, a possibilidade de aplicação desta enzima em processos biotecnológicos. Em adição, a &#946;-Xil-II-rec foi usada para a produção de um anticorpo policlonal em coelho que mostrou por ensaios de Western Blot uma elevada especificidade para reconhecimento da proteína purificada. Paralelamente, com o objetivo de investigar o papel do gene xynB2 para C. crescentus, dois mutantes foram obtidos. O primeiro foi construído pela inserção de um cassete de resistência a espectinomicina dentro do gene xynB2 por dupla recombinação homóloga, gerando uma linhagem mutante nula denominada RSJU-2. Os segundo foi obtido por clonagem do gene xynB2 sob o controle de um promotor indutível por xilose gerando uma linhagem denominada pMOA. A atividade de &#946;-Xilosidase foi mensurada nas células das linhagens RSJU-2, pMOA e parental (NA1000) de C. crescentus, as quais cresceram na ausência e presença de diferentes resíduos agroindustriais. A depleção do gene xynB2 fez as células mais hábeis a produzirem altas atividades de outras &#946;-Xilosidases na presença de diferentes resíduos ou fontes de carbono. Estes resultados indicam que a ausência do gene xynB2 regula positivamente a expressão de outras &#946;-Xilosidases em C. crescentus. Por outro lado, um decréscimo na atividade de &#946;- Xilosidases foi observado na linhagem pMOA, sugerindo que a superexpressão da &#946;- XilosidaseII regula negativamente a atividade de &#946;-Xilosidases. Para verificar se a variação nos níveis de atividade de &#946;-Xilosidase ocorre como um reflexo de variações nos níveis de transcrição de genes de &#946;-Xilosidases nas diferentes cepas, foi construído uma fusão de transcrição a partir da clonagem do promotor do gene xynB2 a frente do gene lacZ de E. coli. Assim, foi quantificada a atividade de &#946;-Galactosidase como uma medida da atividade do promotor do gene xynB2, o que demonstrou que gene xynB2 é dependente de transcrição.

Wood from coniferous trees is an important source of renewable biomass. It can contribute to provision of carbon neutral energy, biomaterials and housing for a growing population. Softwood is mainly composed of cellulose, galactoglucomannan, xylan and lignin. This thesis focuses on the biosynthesis and function of Glucuronic acid (GlcA) decorations on softwood xylan. Results demonstrate that this GUX (GlucUronic acid substitution of Xylan)-dependent xylan branching is critical for the maintenance of biomass recalcitrance in a model vascular plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Experiments employing in vitro and in planta activity assays show that conifer transcriptomes encode at least two distinct GUX enzymes which are active glucuronosyltransferases. Interestingly, these enzymes have different specific activities, with one adding evenly spaced GlcA branches and the other one being able to add consecutive decorations. It is possible that these different patterns of xylan branching may have an impact on ability of xylan to interact with cellulose fibrils. To investigate the role for xylan binding to cellulose, Arabidopsis mutant plants in which this interaction is lost were evaluated alongside transgenic mutant lines in which the interaction may be restored. Results of this analysis indicate that the presence of cellulose-bound xylan might have an influence on plant vasculature integrity and thus it may have an effect on plant growth and biomass properties. Moreover, further results indicate that some xylan cellulose interaction is likely to occur in cell wall macrofibrils which can be detected in softwood. Taken together, this thesis provides insights into the process of conifer xylan glucuronidation and the possible role these branches may be playing in the maintenance of softwood recalcitrance and mechanical properties. In addition to identifying potential mutagenesis targets for improving softwood processing, this work is a proof of concept for the use of GUX enzymes for in vivo and in vitro biosynthesis of novel xylan structures with potential industrial application.

<p>Chemical pulp fibres from wood are commonly used in products associated with packaging as well as with printing and writing. The prevalent way of liberating fibres is by subjecting wood chips to Kraft cooking. This process has a history of almost 130 years and should be both well described and well established. However, new products and new applications that use fibres as an important renewable resource make it all the more important that the properties of fibres be controllable. The properties of wood fibres are influenced by their carbohydrate composition which, in turn, is dependent on the cooking conditions used. This thesis studies the degradation and dissolution of the different carbohydrates during Kraft cooking and summarizes the results in kinetic expressions.</p><p>Industrial wood chips from Norway spruce (Picea abies) were cooked at a high liquor-to-wood ratio in an autoclave digester at varying concentrations of hydroxide ions, hydrogen sulphide ions and sodium ions as well as varying temperatures. The pulps were analysed for carbohydrate composition, kappa number, content of hexenuronic acid and the pure cellulose viscosity, i.e. only the cellulose content in the pulp sample was used for calculating the viscosity. Kraft cooking of Eucalyptus urophylla and Eucalyptus grandis was also studied, using industrial liquor-to-wood ratios, to examine the relationship between hexenuronic acids and the amount of xylan in the pulp samples.</p><p>For Kraft cooking of Norway spruce it was found that an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions increased the rate of dissolution of the carbohydrates and the degradation of the cellulose degree of polymerization (DP). However, measured at a kappa number of 30, it is seen that a low hydroxide ion concentration can lower the carbohydrate yield and the pure cellulose viscosity dramatically. The hydroxide ion concentration not only affects the rate of dissolution but also the amount of xylan that reacts in the slower, final phase. Both cellulose and hemicelluloses were found to be affected by the hydrogen sulphide ion concentration. The dissolution of cellulose and hemicelluloses at varying sodium ion concentrations was found to be affected in different directions. The effect of sodium ion concentration on the DP was found to be dependent on the method of evaluation. The pulp viscosity was found to be affected twice as much by the sodium ion concentration than the pure cellulose viscosity was. For Kraft cooking of hardwood it was found that a high xylan yield not always is synonymous with a high hexenuronic acids content.</p>

The long-term trend regarding wood is an increase in price. Because wood contributes to a large part of production costs, the efficient utilisation of wood is greatly desired to reduce production costs for kraft pulp producers. During the 1990s, the development of improved modified kraft cooking began, which led to higher yields. There was also a trend of terminating kraft cooking at a higher kappa number to maximise the overall yield. For hardwood, the defibration point became a critical setback in allowing this termination at a high kappa number. This thesis discusses how this issue has been tackled in the laboratory by using improved modified kraft cooking combined with extended impregnation to enable a decrease in reject content and shift the defibration point towards a higher kappa number for hardwood. This lab concept is referred to as extended impregnation kraft cooking (EIC), and this thesis reveals that EIC cooking efficiently reduces the reject content for both birch and eucalypt. By using EIC cooking, the defibration point was shifted to a kappa number of ca. 30 from ca. 20 using conventional kraft cooking. This study demonstrates the great potential for achieving a higher overall yield for eucalypt by terminating the EIC cooking at a high kappa number, but with the conditions used in this thesis, no improvement in yield was observed for birch.   An important issue is that the termination of kraft cooking at high kappa number increases the demand for extended oxygen delignification to reach a similar kappa number into bleaching, i.e., due to cost and environmental reasons. Extended oxygen delignification was shown to be possible for both birch and eucalypt EIC pulps (i.e., from kappa number 27 to 10) with an acceptable pulp viscosity number.   The other part of this thesis addresses aspects regarding the limitations in oxygen delignification. It has previously been shown in the literature that a high xylan yield of kraft cooking could negatively affect the efficiency of subsequent oxygen delignification. In this work, the increased xylan content in eucalypt kraft pulp within the range of 8–18% had only a marginally negative impact on the oxygen delignification efficiency after correcting for the HexA contribution to the kappa number. It is also desired to extend the oxygen delignification towards lower kappa number, i.e., below kappa number 10 to decrease the bleaching chemical requirement. In this study, the hypothesis that the reduced efficiency of oxygen delignification at low kappa numbers could partly be due to the formation of oxidisable carbohydrate-related structures (i.e., HexA and/or other non-lignin structures) was also tested. No formation was established. On the other hand, a final oxygen delignification stage in the bleaching could be an attractive alternative for reducing yellowing and enhancing brightness; in fact, this has led to the development of a patent (SE 528066). / Ved står för en stor del av produktionskostnaderna vid framställning av sulfatmassa. Då vedpriserna har ökat genom åren är ett effektivt utnyttjande av veden önskvärt för att kunna sänka produktionskostnaderna. Under 1990-talet förbättrades den modifierade sulfatkokningen vilket innebar möjlighet till högre massautbyte. För att maximera massautbytet styrdes kokningsprocessen mot ett högre kappatal. Detta har visat sig vara svårare för lövved än för barrved, eftersom defibrerbarhetspunkten utgör ett kritiskt hinder. I denna avhandling har laborationsstudier utförts där förbättrad modifierad sulfatkokning kombinerats med förlängd impregnering för att kunna sänka spethalten och därmed förskjuta defibrerbarhetspunkten mot ett högre kappatal. Detta koncept kallas för extended impregnation kraft cooking (EIC). EIC-kokning visade sig vara en effektiv metod för att minska spethalten hos björk och eukalyptus. Med EIC-kokning kunde defibrerbarhetspunkten höjas från cirka 20 till cirka 30. I denna avhandling klarläggs att det finns stora möjligheter att öka massautbytet för eukalyptus genom att avsluta sulfatkoket vid ett högre kappatal. För björk kunde ingen ökning av massutbytet uppnås genom ovanstående metod.   Vid ett högre kappatal efter sulfatkoket ställs även krav på förlängd syrgasdelignifiering, för att kunna behålla samma kappatal in till blekeriet. Det visade sig vara fullt möjligt att förlänga syrgasdelignifieringen för de EIC-kokade björk- och eukalyptusmassorna (d.v.s. från kappatal 27 till 10) med accepterad massaviskositet.   Den andra delen av avhandlingen tar upp aspekter på syrgasdelignifieringens begränsningar. Tidigare studier har visat att ett högre utbyte av xylan vid sulfatkokning kan vara negativt för syrgasdelignifieringens effektivitet.  I denna studie har det påvisats att en ökad xylanhalt i intervallet 8–18 procent i eukalyptusmassa endast har en marginell negativ inverkan på syrgasdelignifieringens effektivitet efter att kappatalet korrigerats för HexA. Det är önskvärt att förlänga syrgasdelignifieringen till ett lägre kappatal än 10 för att minska förbrukningen av blekkemikalier. I den här studien prövades hypotesen att syrgasdelignifieringens begränsningar vid låga kappatal, under 10, delvis skulle kunna bero på bildning av oxiderbara kolhydratrelaterade strukturer (d.v.s. HexA och/eller andra okända ”non-lignin”-strukturer). Ingen bildning kunde dock observeras. Däremot indikerades att ett syrgassteg i slutet av bleksekvensen skulle kunna vara ett eftersträvansvärt alternativ för minskad eftergulning och ökad ljushet, vilket ledde till ett patent (SE 528066). / QC 20120507

Chemical pulp fibres from wood are commonly used in products associated with packaging as well as with printing and writing. The prevalent way of liberating fibres is by subjecting wood chips to Kraft cooking. This process has a history of almost 130 years and should be both well described and well established. However, new products and new applications that use fibres as an important renewable resource make it all the more important that the properties of fibres be controllable. The properties of wood fibres are influenced by their carbohydrate composition which, in turn, is dependent on the cooking conditions used. This thesis studies the degradation and dissolution of the different carbohydrates during Kraft cooking and summarizes the results in kinetic expressions. Industrial wood chips from Norway spruce (Picea abies) were cooked at a high liquor-to-wood ratio in an autoclave digester at varying concentrations of hydroxide ions, hydrogen sulphide ions and sodium ions as well as varying temperatures. The pulps were analysed for carbohydrate composition, kappa number, content of hexenuronic acid and the pure cellulose viscosity, i.e. only the cellulose content in the pulp sample was used for calculating the viscosity. Kraft cooking of Eucalyptus urophylla and Eucalyptus grandis was also studied, using industrial liquor-to-wood ratios, to examine the relationship between hexenuronic acids and the amount of xylan in the pulp samples. For Kraft cooking of Norway spruce it was found that an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions increased the rate of dissolution of the carbohydrates and the degradation of the cellulose degree of polymerization (DP). However, measured at a kappa number of 30, it is seen that a low hydroxide ion concentration can lower the carbohydrate yield and the pure cellulose viscosity dramatically. The hydroxide ion concentration not only affects the rate of dissolution but also the amount of xylan that reacts in the slower, final phase. Both cellulose and hemicelluloses were found to be affected by the hydrogen sulphide ion concentration. The dissolution of cellulose and hemicelluloses at varying sodium ion concentrations was found to be affected in different directions. The effect of sodium ion concentration on the DP was found to be dependent on the method of evaluation. The pulp viscosity was found to be affected twice as much by the sodium ion concentration than the pure cellulose viscosity was. For Kraft cooking of hardwood it was found that a high xylan yield not always is synonymous with a high hexenuronic acids content.

Xylan is the main hemicellulose in birch, eucalyptus, and most other hardwood species. During kraft pulping a series of chemical reactions and physical processes involving xylan takes place. The processes studied here are the following: dissolution, degradation, redeposition onto the fibres, side-group conversion, and cleavage of side groups off the xylan backbone. The side group in native xylan consists of methylglucuronic acid, which is partly converted into hexenuronic acid during kraft cooking. Hexenuronic acid affects the pulp in terms of increased brightness reversion and reduced bleachability. The kinetics of the side-group cleavage and conversion reactions were studied using various analytical tools. The study revealed that the most common methods for methylglucuronic acid quantifcation can be signifcantly improved in terms of accuracy. A modifcation and combination of two of the methods was suggested and evaluated. In order to minimise the hexenuronic acid content, a common suggestion involves the use of a high cooking temperature. The kinetic study found that the degree of substitution of pulp xylan is only slightly affected by temperature, and that the observed effects are likely to be more associated with the xylan content of the pulp than with the hexenuronic acid content of the xylan. For the dissolved xylan, however, the degree of substitution indicated a high temperature dependency for birch kraft cooking. By collecting black liquors at different stages in the cook, different molecular properties of the dissolved xylan was obtained. The liquors were charged at later parts of the cook, making the dissolved xylan to reattach to the fibres. Depending on the molecular properties of the added xylan, the tensile strength properties of the produced paper were improved. These improvements in paper properties were correlated to the molecular behaviour of the added xylan in solution. / QC 20100702