For over a decade now, Bongo Fleva has been the dominant category of popular music in Tanzania, surpassing Muziki wa Dansi (dance music) and Taarab in terms of its presence in the media. Bongo Fleva has become deversified in the last years and at present includes elements of traditional music as well as popular dance music, both of African and Western origin (Raab 2006: 43 ff.). As a result, contemporary Bongo Fleva is stylistically complex. Ther lyrics of Bongo Fleva are specifically determined by 1) the use of Swahili youth language and slang expressions. 2) the representation of modern and young lifestyles, and 3) socio-critical contens with pedagocial and moralistic tendencies. The lyrics of Bongo Fleva are marked by youth discourse which is most important for the construction of youth identities. While Bongo Fleva text with dialogic structure seem to continue the older tradition of Muziki wa Dansi, the dramatic texts remind of the way folk narratives are told in Tanzania. As the dramatic Bongo Fleva texts make use of direct speech, often of several characters, and without introduction, it seems that traditional techniques of story-telling have an effect on Bongo Fleva rap lyrics. In this article a rap text of this kind, Mikasi (\"Sex\"), released in 2004 by Bongo Fleva artist Ngwair, will be analysed with regard to its form, content and function. As it conteain different roles and dialogues, it is suitable for the investigation of youths`talk. A special focus will be put on the self-portrayal of the youths in the dialogues of the song, and on the question how boasting and dissing is performed in a dialogic text.

Den här uppsatsen undersöker unga människors attityder till att använda enstaka ord ochfraser på engelska i svenska meningar. Forskning visar att engelskt inflytande är högre iyngre åldrar än hos äldre. Fenomenet att använda engelska ord i det svenska språket desenaste decennierna har ökat alltmer och det finns flera faktorer som pekar på attengelskan har fått ett allt större inflytande inom flera samhällsområden. Dessa språkligaförändringar speglas av samhällets kultur och attityd till engelskan. Förutom den litteratursom jag hänvisar till i den här uppsatsen har jag valt att genomföra en intervju- ochenkätundersökning med yngre individer för att ta reda på deras attityd till att växla mellansvenska och engelska när de talar.Resultatet av undersökningen visar att en majoritet av informanterna använder engelskai sitt vardagsspråk och att attityden till att använda ord och fraser på engelska i det svenskaspråket är mycket positiv samt att sociala faktorer som till exempel samhörighet spelar enstor roll. Dessutom visar resultatet att attityden till att använda engelska ord är något merpositiv hos flickor än hos pojkar. Resultatet visar även att informanterna i undersökningenanvänder engelska ord som screena, softa och King när de talar om fritidsaktiviteter samtatt de entusiastiskt uttrycker engelska adjektiv som cool, pretty, nice eller najs, ibland isin engelska form och ibland anpassat till svenskan.

Syftet med den här uppsatsen är att, utifrån olika exempel på ungdomsspråk, undersöka gymnasieelevers och svensklärares attityder till samt användning av ungdomsspråk i och utanför gymnasieskolans verksamhet med ett fokus på muntlig språkproduktion i svenskämnet. Vidare utreder uppsatsen om det finns likheter och skillnader mellan gymnasieelevers och svensklärares användning av ungdomsspråk samt vad för attityder de har till det. Uppsatsen visar också på om och hur gymnasieelevers prestationer i svenskämnet påverkas av deras användning av ungdomsspråk. Dessutom undersöks gymnasieelevers och svensklärares uppfattning om det ovanstående och om motpartens användning av ungdomsspråk. Två underliggande faktorer, det vill säga kön och ålder, undersöks också i koppling till de ovannämnda målgrupperna. Två enkäter distribuerades till gymnasielever och svensklärare vid en gymnasieskola där de fick besvara kvalitativa och kvantitativa frågor angående attityder till och användning av ungdomsspråk. Resultatet visade att gymnasieelever använder ungdomsspråk mer än svensklärare, både i och utanför gymnasieskolans verksamhet, exempelvis genom slang, svordomar och diskurspartiklar. Båda målgrupperna har olika attityder till ungdomsspråk där svensklärare kan se det som begränsande medan gymnasielever anser att det skapar gemenskap. Svensklärare och gymnasieelever har också varierande åsikter om huruvida elevers användning av ungdomsspråk påverkar deras prestationer i svenskämnet. Dock anser majoriteten av dem att det har en negativ inverkan. Likaså finns det både likheter och skillnader hos båda målgruppernas uppfattning av motpartens användning av ungdomsspråk. Det visas till exempel genom att svensklärarna anser att ungdomsspråk kan vara innovativt medan gymnasielever uttrycker att det är pinsamt om deras lärare försöker använda ungdomsspråk i klassrummet. / The purpose with this essay is to, based on different examples of youth language, examine upper secondary students’ and Swedish teachers’ attitudes to and usage of youth language in and outside upper secondary school with a focus on oral language production in the school subject of Swedish. This essay will also focus on if and how upper secondary students’ accomplishments in the school subject of Swedish are affected by their usage of youth language as well as what kind of view that upper secondary students and Swedish teachers have about this and about the opposite group’s usage of youth language. Two underlying factors, as in gender and age, will also be examined in relation to the previously mentioned target groups. Two surveys were handed out to upper secondary students and Swedish teachers. They got to answer qualitative and quantitative questions about attitudes to and usage of youth language. The result showed that upper secondary students use youth language more than Swedish teachers, both in and outside upper secondary school, for example through slang, curse words and discourse markers. Both of the target groups have different attitudes to youth language where Swedish teachers consider that it is limited while upper secondary students believe that it creates solidarity. Swedish teachers and upper secondary students also have different opinions about the fact that students’ usage of youth language might affect their accomplishments in the school subject of Swedish. However, the majority of both target groups believe that it has a negative influence. There are also similarities and differences between both target groups’ views on the counterpart’s usage of youth language. For example, the Swedish teachers believe that youth language can be innovative while upper secondary students express that it is embarrassing if their teachers try to use youth language in the classroom.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-01T18:24:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertacao_maria_das_gracas_bento.pdf: 7756943 bytes, checksum: ec8f914a045090c6f496de7f7a274f68 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-06-01 / This work development has been lead, through reflections that associate citizenship term meaning plurality to PCN transversality, regarding to Ethics and citizenship, to language viewpoint, in Bakhtin´s thought, as interaction and, even, the place where the social, rapports constitute themselves, departing from the particular view that citizenship must be dealt with as theorical-pratical exercise and is built, constructed in political, economical and educational decisions scenery. This Research departs from the hypothesis which according to that language permeates, comes throughout citizenship formation all activities and reflects itself in the pupil s, student s discourse and, still it this Research searches finding out whether the schools enable citizenship development, through their discourses, materialized in their PPPs Political-Pedagogical Project. In order to demonstrate, show up that language dialogical character is a decisive, determinating factor in subject s constitution and that citizenship living experiences are represented, portrayed through verbal interaction with the other one, the alter , and with the world itself, this Research was accomplished in three (3) Salgueiro s-PE teaching net urban schools, being two (2) of them Public Schools State s (province s) and municipality s ones and one (1) of them ruled by private schools net. One may justify the choice regarding to these schools, aiming at having, forming a deeper perception about Basic, Fundamental Teaching concluding student s, pupils different viewpoints, considering these pupils, student s social and economical diversities and every school management, administration politics. The Sample consists of twelve (12) subjects, from both the sexes, chosen by teachers on Portuguese Language and selected schools managers, administrators, among the students, pupils registered in the eighth (8ª) series. In order to attain these aims, one takes, as a methodological principle, the qualitative analysis, since it the above-mentioned kind of analysis-allows, permits the investigation in levels that comprehend language and citizenship context, in the pupil s, student´s discourses, represented, portrayed in their interviews, in their narrative and argumentative texts. The corpus is analyzed in three categories. One of them, placed in the interview text, allowed, permitted perceiving the citizenship meanings, built, constructed in the pupil s, student s discourse. The other two ones have led, respectively, to the written productions analysis, upheld in dialogism and polyphony bakhtinian, concepts this analyses showed up that language is a social interaction activity, permeates all social participation and citizenship construction activities and is reflected in subject-pupil textual production. / O desenvolvimento do presente trabalho foi encaminhado, a partir de reflexões que associam a pluralidade do significado do termo cidadania à transversalidade dos PCN Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais, especificamente, no que diz respeito à Ética e à Cidadania, na visão de linguagem dos estudos de Bakhtin, como interação em que as relações sociais se constituem, tendo, em vista, que a cidadania deve ser tratada, como exercício teórico-prático e se constrói no cenário das decisões políticas, econômicas e educacionais. Esta Investigação parte da hipótese de que a linguagem permeia todas as atividades da formação cidadã e se reflete, no discurso do aluno e, também, se as escolas possibilitam o desenvolvimento da cidadania, por meio dos seus discursos, materializados no Projeto Político-Pedagógico. Para demonstrar que o caráter dialógico da linguagem é fator determinante, na constituição do sujeito e que as vivências de cidadania são representadas pela interação verbal com o outro e com o mundo, a pesquisa foi realizada em três Escolas Urbanas da Rede de Ensino de Salgueiro-PE, sendo duas Escolas Públicas Estadual e Municipal e uma Escola de iniciativa privada. Justifica-se a escolha dessas escolas, para se ter uma visão mais aprofundada das diferentes percepções dos alunos, concluintes do Ensino Fundamental, considerando as diversidades socioeconômicas desses alunos e a política de gestão de cada escola. A amostra é constituída de doze sujeitos, de ambos os sexos, escolhidos pelas professoras de Língua Portuguesa e gestoras das escolas selecionadas, entre os alunos matriculados na 8ª série. Para alcançar os objetivos, toma-se, como princípio metodológico, a análise qualitativa, por permitir a exploração em níveis que abrangem o contexto da linguagem e da cidadania, nos textos dos alunos, representados nas entrevistas, nos textos narrativos e argumentativos. O corpus é analisado a partir de três categorias: uma que, situada no texto da entrevista, permitiu perceber os significados de cidadania construídos no discurso do aluno e as outras duas conduziram, respectivamente a análise das produções escritas, sustentadas nos conceitos bakhtinianos de dialogismo e polifonia. Essa análise demonstrou que a linguagem é uma atividade de interação social, permeia todas as atividades de construção da cidadania e se reflete na produção textual do sujeito aluno.

MAAS / Department of African Studies / The aim of the study was to rethink the role of mahundwane as an educational game for Vhavenda speaking youth. Since time-immemorial, mahundwane has been an integral part in empowering the Vhavenda youth for marriage, sexuality education, moral behaviour and other African values. It has been noted that with the advent of modernisation and lack of documentation, mahundwane has been abandoned by the majority of Vhavenda youth resulting in many social-ills like teenage pregnancy and others. The overall objectives were to explore the nature and the process of mahundwane as an educational game for Vhavenda youth, to identify the teaching acquired during mahundwane game and to examine the educational value of mahundwane in Vhavenda youth. The study was founded on the socio-cultural theory and modernisation theory to attain its findings. This study utilised the qualitative research design. Data collection methods included face-to-face semi-structured interviews, observations and focus group discussions. The study participants were selected using purposive and snow-balling sampling. To effectively document the nature, processes and the role of mahundwane in educating the youth, community elders and other knowledge holders were engaged. This study was of importance in reviving some indigenous games that are almost extinct. The study recommends an introduction and intensive expansion of social media technologies, inclusion of the indigenous games into the education curriculum and introducing copyright and intellectual property rights to effectively address the extinction of indigenous games and practices. / NRF

Swahili has been moulded in a long process by many factors over many centuries (Chiraghdin & Mnyampala 1977, Khalid 1977, Nurse & Spear 1985, Shariff 1973, Whiteley 1969). One of the latest chapters in its history is the standardisation and implementation as national and official language in Tanzania after independence.The National Swahili Council was given the task of further developing as well as guarding the standard form in textbooks for schools, in literature, in music texts, and in radio and television broadcasting. However, while Standard Swahili was taught in schools and writtenin books and newspapers, people in town quarters where Swahili was spoken developed and used a colloquial style of speech by enriching the standard form with “slang” expressions and lexemes.Recently, many people in Tanzania speak of “lugha za mitaani” (‘languages of the town quarters’, or ‘street languages’), using the plural to point to the fact that there exists a whole range of varieties of non-standard language, depending on local and social factors. The more recent development of lugha za mitaani reflects very much the social, economic, and political liberalisation in Tanzania, which started in the late 1980s. Little research has been done on the complex of these locally coloured colloquial Swahili variants, and we hope that our work will prepare the ground for further, more detailed studies. Since we acknowledge the existence of variants, we will use Lugha ya Mitaani (henceforth abbreviated LyM) to denote the phenomenon as such, whereas we will apply the term Lugha za Mitaani (henceforth abbreviated LzM) when we speak of the complex of variants.The primary characteristic of lugha za mitaani in general is that they deviate from Standard Kiswahili by their special lexicon which is in a constant process of rapid renovation. This is done by way of deliberate manipulation of existing lexical items, as an expression of an attitude of jocular and provocative violation of linguistic norms.Looking into the linguistic makeup, it is quite clear that Lugha ya Mitaani is not an independent language, but a sociolect or register of Kiswahili. The geographical centre of the ongoing creation and recreation of linguistic elements is Dar es Salaam. From there the linguistic items spread very quickly into the interior and reach even remote places such as Nachingwea (Lindi region) and Kurio (Dodoma region), where we conducted our research. The remarkably high mobility of the youth in Tanzania plays a crucial role in this process, but also the media, especially music, radio, video, and the yellow press contribute a lot to the rapid diffusion of Lugha ya Mitaani-terms. This article is based on research conducted in Tanzania between 2000 and 2006 and approaches the phenomenon of Lugha ya Mitaani from different angles. A substantial part of the field research was lexicographic in nature, complemented by ethnographic methods (see chapter two). The analysis focuses on form, function, mediation and general comparative sociolinguistic issues of Lugha ya Mitaani.:1. Introduction: Lugha ya Mitaani 1 1.1 History of colloquial non-standard Swahili speech forms 1 1.2 Special forms of Lugha ya Mitaani 4 1.2.1 Campus Swahili 5 1.2.2 Secret codes derived from Swahili 5 1.2.3 Lugha ya vijana wa vijiweni 6 1.2.4 The language of daladalas 8 1.3 Overview of the article 9 2. Methodology 10 2.1 Field research 10 2. 2 Acknowledgements 12 2. 3 The making of the dictionary 12 3. Sociolinguistics of Lugha ya Mitaani 13 3.1 Lugha ya Mitaani as youth language 13 3.2 Knowledge, use and attitudes 14 3.3 Diachronic aspects of Lugha ya Mitaani 17 4. Lexical elaboration 18 4.1 Humans and social relations 20 4.1.1 Humans 20 4.1.2 Women 21 4.1.3 Men 23 4.1.4 Homosexuals 23 UTA REUSTER-JAHN & ROLAND KIEßLING 4.1.5 Social relationship 24 4.1.6 Social status 24 4.2 Communication 24 4.3 Body & Appearance 25 4.4 Economy, Money & Occupation 26 4.5 Sex 27 4.6 Drugs & Alcohol 28 4.7 Movement & Vehicles 28 4.8 Evaluative terms 29 4.9 Experience 30 4.10 Trouble & Violence 30 4.11 Crime & Police 30 4.12 Food 31 4.13 Disease 31 4.14 Geography & Place 32 4.15 Education 32 4.16 Sports 33 4.17 Weapons 33 4.18 Cultural innovation 33 4.19 Time 33 5. The poetic making of Lugha ya Mitaani 34 5.1 Hyperbole and dysphemism 35 5.2 Humoristic effects 37 5.3 Metaphors 39 LUGHA YA MITAANI IN TANZANIA 5.4 Cognitive motivation 41 5.5 Onomastic synecdoche 43 5.6 Multiple semantic extensions 44 5.7 Folk etymologies 45 5.8 Phraseologisms 46 5.9 Manipulations of form 50 5.10 Donor languages 52 6. The construction of youth identities in discourse practice 53 7. Lugha ya Mitaani and the media 60 8. Lugha ya Mitaani in a historical perspective 66 8.1 Lugha ya Mitaani in contrast to other phenomena of language birth 67 8.1.1 Pidginisation and creolisation 67 8.1.2 Codeswitching 67 8.1.3 Lugha ya Mitaani and Sheng 70 8.2 Semantic change 75 8.3 Sociosymbolic change 76 9. Conclusion 78 Abbreviations 79 Bibliography 80 Appendix 1: Lugha ya Mitaani texts written by John Degera 88 Appendix 2: Diachronic change in the campus lexicon at Teacher Training College Nachingwea 90 Appendix 3: Dictionary of Lugha ya Mitaani 93

L’un des aspects les plus percutants des avancées de la technologie des quinze dernières années a trait à la communication médiée par ordinateur : clavardage, messagerie instantanée, courrier électronique, forums de discussion, blogues, sites de réseautage social, etc. En plus d’avoir eu un impact significatif sur la société contemporaine, ces outils de communication ont largement modifié les pratiques d’écriture. Notre objet d’étude est le clavardage en groupe qui offre la possibilité aux scripteurs de communiquer simultanément entre eux. Cet outil de communication présente deux caractéristiques importantes aux plans discursif et communicationnel. Premièrement, on admet de façon générale que le clavardage est une forme de communication hybride : le code utilisé est l’écrit, mais les échanges de messages entrent dans une structure de dialogue qui rappelle l’oral. Deuxièmement, le caractère spontané du clavardage impose la rapidité, tant pour l’encodage que pour le décodage des messages. Dans le cadre d’une étude comparative réalisée sur les pratiques scripturales des clavardeurs francophones (Tatossian et Dagenais 2008), nous avons établi quatre catégories générales pour rendre compte de toutes les variantes scripturales de notre corpus : procédés abréviatifs, substitutions de graphèmes, neutralisations en finale absolue et procédés expressifs. Nous voulons maintenant tester la solidité de notre typologie pour des langues dont le degré de correspondance phonético-graphique diffère. En vertu de l’hypothèse de la profondeur de l’orthographe (orthographic depth hypothesis [ODH]; Katz et Frost 1992) selon laquelle un système orthographique transparent (comme l’italien, l’espagnol ou le serbo-croate) transpose les phonèmes directement dans l’orthographe, nous vérifierons si nos résultats pour le français peuvent être généralisés à des langues dont l’orthographe est dite « transparente » (l’espagnol) comparativement à des langues dont l’orthographe est dite « opaque » (le français et l’anglais). Pour chacune des langues, nous avons voulu répondre à deux question, soit : 1. De quelle manière peut-on classifier les usages scripturaux attestés ? 2. Ces usages graphiques sont-ils les mêmes chez les adolescents et les adultes aux plans qualitatif et quantitatif ? Les phénomènes scripturaux du clavardage impliquent également l’identité générationnelle. L’adolescence est une période caractérisée par la quête d’identité. L’étude de Sebba (2003) sur l’anglais démontre qu’il existe un rapport entre le « détournement de l’orthographe » et la construction identitaire chez les adolescents (par ex. les graffitis, la CMO). De plus, dans ces espaces communicationnels, nous assistons à la formation de communautés d’usagers fondée sur des intérêts communs (Crystal 2006), comme l’est la communauté des adolescents. Pour la collecte des corpus, nous recourrons à des échanges effectués au moyen du protocole Internet Relay Chat (IRC). Aux fins de notre étude, nous délimitons dans chacune des langues deux sous-corpus sociolinguistiquement distincts : le premier constitué à partir de forums de clavardage destinés aux adolescents, le second à partir de forums pour adultes. Pour chacune des langues, nous avons analysé 4 520 énoncés extraits de divers canaux IRC pour adolescents et pour adultes. Nous dressons d’abord un inventaire quantifié des différents phénomènes scripturaux recensés et procédons ensuite à la comparaison des résultats. / One of the most sticking aspects of technological progress over the last fifteen years is computer- mediated communication (CMC): chatting, instant messaging, e-mail, discussion forums, blogs, social networking sites, etc. In addition to having significantly impacted contemporary society, these communication tools have greatly modified writing practices. The object of this study is group chatting which offers many writers the possibility of communicating simultaneous amongst themselves. This communication tool shows two important discursive and communicational characteristics. First, chatting is generally a hybrid form of communication: the code used is written, but the exchange of messages forms a dialogue structure resembling oral speech. Second, the spontaneous character of chatting imposes speed, both in encoding and decoding messages. Within the framework of a comparative study on writing practices in Francophone chatters (Tatossian and Dagenais 2008), four general categories for all writing variations in the corpus were established: abbreviatory processes, grapheme substitutions, word final neutralisations and expressive processes. Now we are interested in testing the rigueur of this classification in languages where the phonetico-graphical degree of correspondence differs. According to the Orthographic Depth Hypothesis [ODH] (Katz and Frost 1992), in which a transparent orthographic system (such as in Italian, Spanish or Serbo-Croatian) directly transpose phonemes into the orthographic system, we seek to verify whether our results for French can be generalised both to languages with a “transparent” orthographic system (Spanish) and to languages whose orthographic systems are “opaque” (French, English). For each language, two questions were asked: 1. How can attested scriptural practices be classified? 2. Are these graphic practices qualitatively and quantitatively similar amongst both adolescents and adults? The scriptural phenomena related to chatting also imply a generational identity. Adolescence is a period characterised by the quests for an identity. A study by Sebba (2003) on English shows that a relationship exists between “modified spelling” and the construction of identity in adolescents (i.e. graffiti, CMC). In addition, in these communication realms, we see the creation of a community of users based on common interests (Crystal 2006), such as in the adolescent community. A corpus was constructed from exchanges accessed through the Internet Relay Chat protocol. For each language in the study, two sociolinguistic distinct sub-corpora were defined: the first was made up of adolescent chat forums, the second, of a forum for adults. For each language, 4520 sentences, taken from various IRC channels for adolescents and adults, were analysed. First, a quantified inventory of the different scriptural phenomena collected was created and then the results were compared.

Cette thèse s’intéresse à la représentation écrite du « parler jeune » dans la bande dessinée. La représentation de la langue des jeunes dans la bande dessinée est intéressante pour diverses raisons : D’un point de vue sociétal, elle touche à la langue des adolescents qui depuis quelques années attire l’attention des sociolinguistes et du grand public. D’un point de vue linguistique, le « parler jeune » est représenté dans la bande dessinée qui est une forme d’expression très prisée en France, en comparaison avec le français standard et la norme de la langue française. Les résultats trouvés dans la recherche originale sont très importants en ce qui concerne le passage de l’oral à l’écrit. La recherche s’est faite sur le plan phonique en étudiant la manière dont la prosodie et l’intonation sont interprétées à l’écrit ; sur le plan lexical en examinant les mots du corpus ; sur le plan morphologique en analysant la formation des mots du corpus ; sur le plan syntaxique où le besoin d’être bref est présent mais aussi quelle richesse apporte l’utilisation des interjections et des onomatopées dans la bande dessinée. / This thesis deals the written representation of the youth language (slang) in comic books. The representation of the language of the young people in the comic books is interesting for various reasons: from a societal point of view, it relates with the language of the teenagers which for a few years has drawn the attention of the sociolinguists and the general public. From a linguistic point of view, youth language is represented in the comic books that are a form of expression very widespread in France, in comparison with standard French and the standard of French language. The results found in original research are very important with regard to the passage of the oral examination to the writing. Research was done at the phonic level by studying the way in which the prosody and the intonation are interpreted in written at the lexical level by examining the words of the corpus; on the morphological level by analyzing the formation of the words of the corpus; at the syntactic level where the need to be brief is present but also which wealth brings the use of the interjections and the onomatopoeias in the comic book.

Cette thèse analyse les pratiques langagières hétérogènes d’une quarantaine d’adolescents originaires des quartiers multiculturels de la capitale norvégienne. Croisant une approche sociolinguistique, épistémologique et psychoculturelle, nous nous interrogeons sur les motivations sociales et individuelles du recours à des variables lexicales et syntaxiques jugées innovantes en norvégien. Notre recherche vise à démontrer que ces éléments linguistiques ne résultent pas d’un manque de compétences linguistiques, mais bien d’une variation stylistique à laquelle les locuteurs-individus ont recours en fonction d’une multitude de paramètres internes et externes à l’énonciation. L’analyse sociohistorique permet de replacer les locuteurs dans leur environnement local et de contextualiser leurs faits de langue. L’analyse linguistique s’appuie quant à elle sur des données écologiques recueillies dans le cadre du projet national UPUS (Utviklingsprosesser i urbane språkmiljø – Processus de développement linguistique en milieu urbain) mené entre 2006 et 2008 à Oslo. In fine la thèse propose d’envisager les pratiques stylistiques hétérogènes comme un champ de ressources non-fixes présent dans le répertoire d’individus aussi bien adolescents qu’adultes, issus des minorités comme de la majorité nationale dont le point commun n’est pas le partage d’une origine ethnique mais bien l’expérience conjointe de l’actuel milieu urbain contemporain. / This thesis provides a sociolinguistic analysis of Norwegian contemporary language practices among 41 adolescents all raised in multilingual and multicultural environments in the Eastern parts of Oslo. Based on a series of examples from the UPUS-Project (Utviklingsprosesser i urbane språkmiljø – Linguistic Development in Urban Environments), this work discusses social and individual motivations which lead speakers to use innovative lexical (including non-European loan words) and syntactic features in Norwegian. We argue that heterogeneous features do not result from a lack of language skills but rather are a part of a speech style thatspeakers activate depending on discursive settings. We also take into account the social and historical dimensions of Oslo in order to contextualize the language practices and to demonstrate how speakers during the life stage of adolescence make themselves heard on the local and global society. We suggest that this new speech style is not restricted to Oslo and adolescents speakers, but rather is a common resource for whoever wants to show solidarity toward the contemporary urban reality.

L’un des aspects les plus percutants des avancées de la technologie des quinze dernières années a trait à la communication médiée par ordinateur : clavardage, messagerie instantanée, courrier électronique, forums de discussion, blogues, sites de réseautage social, etc. En plus d’avoir eu un impact significatif sur la société contemporaine, ces outils de communication ont largement modifié les pratiques d’écriture. Notre objet d’étude est le clavardage en groupe qui offre la possibilité aux scripteurs de communiquer simultanément entre eux. Cet outil de communication présente deux caractéristiques importantes aux plans discursif et communicationnel. Premièrement, on admet de façon générale que le clavardage est une forme de communication hybride : le code utilisé est l’écrit, mais les échanges de messages entrent dans une structure de dialogue qui rappelle l’oral. Deuxièmement, le caractère spontané du clavardage impose la rapidité, tant pour l’encodage que pour le décodage des messages. Dans le cadre d’une étude comparative réalisée sur les pratiques scripturales des clavardeurs francophones (Tatossian et Dagenais 2008), nous avons établi quatre catégories générales pour rendre compte de toutes les variantes scripturales de notre corpus : procédés abréviatifs, substitutions de graphèmes, neutralisations en finale absolue et procédés expressifs. Nous voulons maintenant tester la solidité de notre typologie pour des langues dont le degré de correspondance phonético-graphique diffère. En vertu de l’hypothèse de la profondeur de l’orthographe (orthographic depth hypothesis [ODH]; Katz et Frost 1992) selon laquelle un système orthographique transparent (comme l’italien, l’espagnol ou le serbo-croate) transpose les phonèmes directement dans l’orthographe, nous vérifierons si nos résultats pour le français peuvent être généralisés à des langues dont l’orthographe est dite « transparente » (l’espagnol) comparativement à des langues dont l’orthographe est dite « opaque » (le français et l’anglais). Pour chacune des langues, nous avons voulu répondre à deux question, soit : 1. De quelle manière peut-on classifier les usages scripturaux attestés ? 2. Ces usages graphiques sont-ils les mêmes chez les adolescents et les adultes aux plans qualitatif et quantitatif ? Les phénomènes scripturaux du clavardage impliquent également l’identité générationnelle. L’adolescence est une période caractérisée par la quête d’identité. L’étude de Sebba (2003) sur l’anglais démontre qu’il existe un rapport entre le « détournement de l’orthographe » et la construction identitaire chez les adolescents (par ex. les graffitis, la CMO). De plus, dans ces espaces communicationnels, nous assistons à la formation de communautés d’usagers fondée sur des intérêts communs (Crystal 2006), comme l’est la communauté des adolescents. Pour la collecte des corpus, nous recourrons à des échanges effectués au moyen du protocole Internet Relay Chat (IRC). Aux fins de notre étude, nous délimitons dans chacune des langues deux sous-corpus sociolinguistiquement distincts : le premier constitué à partir de forums de clavardage destinés aux adolescents, le second à partir de forums pour adultes. Pour chacune des langues, nous avons analysé 4 520 énoncés extraits de divers canaux IRC pour adolescents et pour adultes. Nous dressons d’abord un inventaire quantifié des différents phénomènes scripturaux recensés et procédons ensuite à la comparaison des résultats. / One of the most sticking aspects of technological progress over the last fifteen years is computer- mediated communication (CMC): chatting, instant messaging, e-mail, discussion forums, blogs, social networking sites, etc. In addition to having significantly impacted contemporary society, these communication tools have greatly modified writing practices. The object of this study is group chatting which offers many writers the possibility of communicating simultaneous amongst themselves. This communication tool shows two important discursive and communicational characteristics. First, chatting is generally a hybrid form of communication: the code used is written, but the exchange of messages forms a dialogue structure resembling oral speech. Second, the spontaneous character of chatting imposes speed, both in encoding and decoding messages. Within the framework of a comparative study on writing practices in Francophone chatters (Tatossian and Dagenais 2008), four general categories for all writing variations in the corpus were established: abbreviatory processes, grapheme substitutions, word final neutralisations and expressive processes. Now we are interested in testing the rigueur of this classification in languages where the phonetico-graphical degree of correspondence differs. According to the Orthographic Depth Hypothesis [ODH] (Katz and Frost 1992), in which a transparent orthographic system (such as in Italian, Spanish or Serbo-Croatian) directly transpose phonemes into the orthographic system, we seek to verify whether our results for French can be generalised both to languages with a “transparent” orthographic system (Spanish) and to languages whose orthographic systems are “opaque” (French, English). For each language, two questions were asked: 1. How can attested scriptural practices be classified? 2. Are these graphic practices qualitatively and quantitatively similar amongst both adolescents and adults? The scriptural phenomena related to chatting also imply a generational identity. Adolescence is a period characterised by the quests for an identity. A study by Sebba (2003) on English shows that a relationship exists between “modified spelling” and the construction of identity in adolescents (i.e. graffiti, CMC). In addition, in these communication realms, we see the creation of a community of users based on common interests (Crystal 2006), such as in the adolescent community. A corpus was constructed from exchanges accessed through the Internet Relay Chat protocol. For each language in the study, two sociolinguistic distinct sub-corpora were defined: the first was made up of adolescent chat forums, the second, of a forum for adults. For each language, 4520 sentences, taken from various IRC channels for adolescents and adults, were analysed. First, a quantified inventory of the different scriptural phenomena collected was created and then the results were compared.