Introduction : Le cancer colorectal (CCR) est responsable de 500 000 morts par an dans le monde et représente la 2ème cause de mortalité par cancer dans les pays industrialisés. En dépit des progrès réalisés, il existe un réel besoin de développer de nouvelles thérapies pour améliorer la survie des patients. Un des principaux facteurs favorisant la survenue et la progression du CCR est le stress se traduisant notamment par la sécrétion de catécholamines activant les récepteurs β-adrénergiques (β1-, β2- et β3-AR) au niveau de la tumeur. Diverses études et observations ont démontré que l’activation des β-AR pouvait favoriser la prolifération tumorale de manière directe (via différents mécanismes comme la prolifération cellulaire) ou indirecte (via une action sur la composante immunitaire). Parmi les cellules immunitaires présentes au sein de la tumeur, les macrophages tumoraux (TAM) peuvent représenter jusqu’à 50% du volume tumoral. Ces derniers y sont retrouvés sous leurs différents phénotypes (M1-like antitumoral et M2-like pro-tumoral). Divers travaux ont fait état de la présence des β-AR à la surface des macrophages où leur effet semble être en faveur d’une polarisation vers un phénotype pro-tumoral. En outre, parmi les 3 sous-types de récepteurs, de nombreux arguments soulignent une implication majoritaire du β3-AR dans ces effets par rapport aux β1- et β2-AR, tandis que seule une surexpression du β3-AR a été observée dans les biopsies de tumeurs du côlon. Objectifs/Méthodes : Nous nous sommes donc attachés à mettre au point une stratégie méthodologique pour l’étude du β3-AR dans le macrophage en condition d’inflammation tissulaire présentant une importante composante macrophagique. Nous avons ensuite étudié les effets du β3-AR sur la prolifération de lignées de cancer colorectal puis sur la polarisation de macrophages humains ainsi que de TAM. Enfin, après avoir étudié la signalisation de ce récepteur chez les macrophages M1 et M2, nous avons observé les effets d’une inhibition pharmacologique du β3-AR sur la polarisation de TAM et sur la progression de tumeurs murines et humaines in vivo. Résultats : Nous avons confirmé que le β3-AR est présent et fonctionnel à la surface des macrophages où son activation résulte en un puissant effet antioxydant et anti-inflammatoire via l’inhibition de NOX2 et l’induction de l’expression de la catalase. Ces effets semblent passer par une signalisation Gs/PKA/Src/Erk1/2 induisant l’activation de PPARγ. Dans nos travaux, nous avons aussi pu voir que le β3-AR n’a pas d’effet prolifératif sur des lignées humaines de CCR. Nous avons également démontré que le β3-AR favorise la polarisation des macrophages vers un phénotype M2 et diminue la polarisation de ces derniers vers un phénotype M1. L’étude des signalisations de ce récepteur chez ces deux phénotypes a indiqué que les voies Gs/PKA/Src/ERK1/2 (M1) et Src/PI3K/ERK1/2 (M2) étaient impliquées. Enfin, l’inhibition du β3-AR a prévenu la progression de tumeurs murines (CT-26) et humaines (SW480) in vivo, via un effet anti-M2-like et pro-M1-like sur les TAM. En conclusion, ces résultats suggèrent que l’inhibition du β3-AR, à travers ses effets sur la polarisation des macrophages, pourrait être une stratégie prometteuse afin d’améliorer la prise en charge des patients souffrant de CCR. / Background: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is responsible for 500.000 deaths per year worldwide and represents the 2nd cause of death by cancer in industrialized countries. Despite the progress made, there is a real need for new therapies to increase patients’ survival. Stress is one of the main factors, which contributes to the occurrence and the progression of CRC, by secreting catecholamines that activate β-adrenergic receptors (β1-, β2- and β3-AR) within the tumor. Several studies and observations have showed that the activation of β-ARs could directly increase tumor proliferation (via mechanisms such as cell proliferation), or indirectly (via an action on immune cells). Among immune cells within the tumor, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) represent up to 50% of the tumor mass where they exhibit their different phenotypes (M1-like anti-tumor and M2-like pro-tumor). Several studies report the presence of β-ARs in macrophages where they seem to favour a pro-tumor polarization. Furthermore, among the three subtypes of β-ARs, most of the studies seem to describe a major implication of the β3-AR compared to β1- and β2-AR. Moreover, only the β3-AR was found to be overexpressed in CRC biopsies. Objectives/Methods: We thus aimed to develop a model to study the β3-AR in macrophages within inflammatory macrophage-dependent conditions. Then, we studied the effects of the β3-AR on colorectal cancer cells’ proliferation and human macrophages and TAMs polarization. Finally, after the study of the signaling pathways of this receptor within M1 and M2 macrophages, we assessed the effects of a pharmacological inhibition of the β3-AR on TAM polarization and tumor progression. Results: We confirmed that the β3-AR is expressed and functional in human macrophages where its activation leads to potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects through NOX2 inhibition and catalase expression. These effects appear to be subsequent to a Gs/PKA/Src/Erk1/2 signaling leading to the activation of PPARγ. In this work, we also saw that the β3-AR does not produce any effect on human CRC cell lines’ proliferation. We also showed that the β3-AR increases macrophage polarization towards the M2 phenotype while it decreases the M1 polarization. The study of β3-AR signaling in M1 and M2 macrophages exhibited Gs/PKA/Src/ERK1/2 and Src/PI3K/ERK1/2 pathways respectively. Finally, a pharmacological inhibition of the β3-AR prevented murine (CT-26) and human (SW480) tumors progression in vivo, through anti-M2-like and pro-M1-like effects on TAM polarization. In conclusion, these results suggest that the inhibition of the β3-AR, through its effects on macrophages polarization, could represent a promising strategy in order to improve CRC patient care.

Abstract not available

Stress activates a number of endocrine pathways that alter an animal's physiology in a manner which can result in undesirable meat quality. Animals frequently exhibit meat quality defects, including ecchymosis, at slaughter due to the stress of slaughter. This thesis explores how stress related hormones interact with adrenergic receptors to alter muscle and vascular physiology. Fallow deer were exposed to either a transciptional regulator (hydrocortisone), a beta adrenergic recptor agonist (clenbuterol) or a beta adrenergic receptor antagonist (propranolol). The administration of hydrocortisone resulted in a negative feed-back type reduction in circulating cortisol. Animals treated with propranolol and clenbuterol displayed less severe eccymosis. These results indicated that the beta 2 adrenergic receptor (B2AR) is important in controlling ecchymosis severity. B2AR was also found to be important in mediating vascular dynamics, growth and energy pathways. To investigate how adrenergic receptors alter skeletal muscle gene expression and meat quality, an in vivo wistar rat model was developed in conjunction with in vitro muscle cell (L6) experiments. Gene expression of B2AR, its associated kinase (BARK) and collagen type III, prolyl- 4-hydroxylase (P4Hy) was measured in rat muscle and L6 cells. Following exposure to clenbuterol and hydrocortisone, growth and meat quality were determined. The L6 experiments revealed that gene expression following exposure to hydrocortisone and B2AR ligands paralleled the in vivo rat changes in B2AR, BARK, collagen type III, and P4Hy gene expression. In both L6 and wistar rat models the B2AR and BARK genes are similarly expressed following clenbuterol exposure. Both rats and deer exposed to clenbuterol had significant increases in growth rate and a reduction of intramuscular fat. The B2AR therefore appears to be a major mediator of many interrelated events including energy distribution, growth and vascular response to stress. Habituating animals to stress stimuli may increase their coping ability and improve welfare and meat quality. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

<p>The alpha-2 adrenergic receptor (α₂-AR) subfamily includes three different subtypes, α_2A-, α_2B- and α_2C-AR, all believed to exert their function through heterotrimeric G_i/o-proteins. The present study was undertaken in order to investigate subtype differences in terms of cellular response and to explore other potential signalling pathways of α₂-ARs.</p><p>Evidence is provided for a strong G_s-protein coupling capability of the α_2B-AR, leading to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase (AC). The difference between the α_2A- and α_2B-AR subtypes, in this respect, was shown to be due to differences in the second intracellular loops of the receptor proteins. Substitution of the second loop in α_2A-AR with the corresponding domain of α_2B-AR enrolled the chimeric α_2A/α_2B receptor with functional α_2B-AR properties. Dual G_i and G_s coupling can have different consequences for AC output. Using coexpression of receptors and G-proteins, it was shown that the ultimate cellular response of α_2B-AR activation is largely dependent on the ratio of G_i- to G_s-protein amounts in the cell. Also G_i- and G_o-proteins appear to have different regulatory influences on AC. Heterologous expression of AC2 together with G_i or G_o and the α_2A-AR resulted in receptor-mediated inhibition of protein kinase C-stimulated AC2 activity through G_o, whereas activation of G_i potentiated the activity. </p><p>α₂-ARs mobilize Ca²⁺ in response to agonists in some cell types. This response was shown to depend on tonic purinergic receptor activity in transfected CHO cells. Elimination of the tonic receptor activity almost completely inhibited the Ca²⁺ response of α₂-ARs.</p><p>In conclusion, α₂-ARs can couple to multiple G-proteins, including G_i, G_o and G_s. The cellular response to α₂-AR activation depends on which receptor subtype is expressed, which cellular signalling constituents are engaged (G-proteins and effectors), and the signalling status of the effectors (dormant or primed).</p>

The alpha-2 adrenergic receptor (α2-AR) subfamily includes three different subtypes, α2A-, α2B- and α2C-AR, all believed to exert their function through heterotrimeric Gi/o-proteins. The present study was undertaken in order to investigate subtype differences in terms of cellular response and to explore other potential signalling pathways of α2-ARs. Evidence is provided for a strong Gs-protein coupling capability of the α2B-AR, leading to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase (AC). The difference between the α2A- and α2B-AR subtypes, in this respect, was shown to be due to differences in the second intracellular loops of the receptor proteins. Substitution of the second loop in α2A-AR with the corresponding domain of α2B-AR enrolled the chimeric α2A/α2B receptor with functional α2B-AR properties. Dual Gi and Gs coupling can have different consequences for AC output. Using coexpression of receptors and G-proteins, it was shown that the ultimate cellular response of α2B-AR activation is largely dependent on the ratio of Gi- to Gs-protein amounts in the cell. Also Gi- and Go-proteins appear to have different regulatory influences on AC. Heterologous expression of AC2 together with Gi or Go and the α2A-AR resulted in receptor-mediated inhibition of protein kinase C-stimulated AC2 activity through Go, whereas activation of Gi potentiated the activity. α2-ARs mobilize Ca2+ in response to agonists in some cell types. This response was shown to depend on tonic purinergic receptor activity in transfected CHO cells. Elimination of the tonic receptor activity almost completely inhibited the Ca2+ response of α2-ARs. In conclusion, α2-ARs can couple to multiple G-proteins, including Gi, Go and Gs. The cellular response to α2-AR activation depends on which receptor subtype is expressed, which cellular signalling constituents are engaged (G-proteins and effectors), and the signalling status of the effectors (dormant or primed).

Retinal ganglion cells play a crucial role in the relay of visual signals from the eye to the brain. This cell type is affected and eventually lost in the eye disease glaucoma, resulting in progressive and irreversible loss of vision. Studies of the molecular mechanisms leading to retinal ganglion cell death are important for the understanding of the disease and for designing future treatments. This thesis addresses and studies these molecular mechanisms, including alterations in gene expression after experimental retinal injuries. The effects of a neuroprotective drug, brimonidine, after transient retinal ischemia were also studied in order to help explain the mechanisms behind the protective properties of this drug. Several methods, including quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR, micro-arrays, western blot and immunohistochemistry, were used. The results showed that transient retinal ischemia triggers cell division in Müller cells and alters the gene expression of growth factors, their receptors, and intermediate filaments in the retina. Several genes related to the apoptosis process were less affected. Pre-treatment with brimonidine increased the levels of certain growth factors (BDNF, NT3, CNTF, FGF9) compared with vehicle. Brimonidine also had marked effects on genes related to progenitor cells, among them the recognized neural stem cell marker nestin. The increase in levels of nestin after ischemia was countered by brimonidine treatment. Moreover, retinal ganglion cell death following either optic nerve transection or optic nerve crush appears to involve the extrinsic apoptotic pathway although the gene expression response appears to differ between these injuries. The results obtained in this work contribute to an increased understanding of retinal injuries and highlight the importance of Müller cells in the endogenous defense against retinal injuries.

Contractility of vascular smooth muscles (VSMs) in resistance arteries determines systemic blood pressure and blood supplies to local tissues, in which ATP sensitive K+ (KATP) channels play a role. The KATP channels that couple metabolic state to cellular activity are activated by multiple hormonal vasodilators and inhibited by vasoconstrictors. To understand the molecular mechanisms for the channel regulation by vasodilators, we studied the effects of β-adrenergic receptors on Kir6.1/SUR2B in HEK cells. Stimulation of β-adrenergic receptors activated the channels, which relied on the GS-protein, adenylyl cyclase, cAMP and PKA system. Using mutational analysis, we scanned all the putative PKA sites on Kir6.1 and SUR2B subunits and identified two residues (Ser1351 and Ser1387) in SUR2B critical for channel activation. In vitro phosphorylation experiments confirmed that Ser1387 but not Ser1351 was phosphorylated in isolated SUR2B peptides. Molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations reveal that phosphorylation at Ser1387 causes interdomain movements in SUR2B subunit. Blockage of the movements by engineering a disulfide bond across NBD2 and TMD1 eliminated the PKA-dependent channel activation. We also studied the molecular basis for the inhibition of vascular KATP channels by PKC. In the HEK expression system, we found that the Kir6.1/SUR2B channel but not the Kir6.2/SUR2B was drastically inhibited by PKC stimulation. We constructed Kir6.1/Kir6.2 chimeras and identified two critical protein domains for the Kir6.1 channel inhibition by PKC. The distal C-terminus was the direct target of PKC where multiple phosphorylation sites were identified. These phosphorylation sites were located in a short sequence with stereotypical sequence repeats. Mutation of any decreased the effects of PKC. Joint mutation of all of them prevented the channel inhibition by PKC. The proximal N-terminus is also involved in PKC effects without phosphorylation sites, suggesting it may play a role in channel gating. Thus, this thesis provides experimental evidence for the vascular KATP channel modulation by PKA and PKC. Phosphorylation of the Kir6.1 and SUR2B subunits by PKC and PKA produce inhibition and activation of the vascular KATP channel, respectively, which appears to be one of the molecular bases contributing to vascular tone regulation by both vasoconstricting and vasodilating hormones and neurotransmitters.

Thesis (M.Sc.)--Memorial University of Newfoundland, School of Pharmacy, 1998. / Typescript. Bibliography: leaves 106-130.

Ο α2 –αδρενεργικός υποδοχέας διακρίνεται σε 3 γνωστούς υποτύπους (α2Α, α2Β, α2C) και μετά αλληλεπίδραση με G-πρωτεΐνες (GPCRs), διαμεσολαβεί μέρος των δράσεων των ορμονών- νευρομεταβιβαστών, επινεφρίνη και νορεπινεφρίνη σε πολλά όργανα, συμπεριλαμβανομένου και του νευρικού συστήματος. Πρότυπο μελέτης του νευρικού συστήματος in vitro, αποτελεί η κυτταρική σειρά PC12, που περιλαμβάνει κύτταρα από φαιοχρωμοκύττωμα αρουραίου, τα οποία υπό την επίδραση του Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) διαφοροποιούνται σε συμπαθητικούς νευρώνες. Μετά από διαμόλυνση, αυτά τα κύτταρα εκφράζουν τους υποτύπους των α2-αδρενεργικών υποδοχέων και βάσει δεδομένων από προηγούμενη εμπειρία του εργαστηρίου μας, μπορούν μετά από ενεργοποίηση με επινεφρίνη να οδηγήσουν στην ενεργοποίηση ενός καταρράκτη μεταγωγής σήματος, που περιλαμβάνει τις κινάσες Akt και ERK1/2. Δεδομένου ότι τα μόρια αυτά συμβάλλουν στην ενεργοποίηση του μεταγραφικού παράγοντα CREB (cAMP response element binding protein) θελήσαμε στην παρούσα εργασία να διερευνήσουμε κατά πόσο η ενεργοποίηση των α2-αδρενεργικών υποδοχέων προκαλεί την CREB φωσφορυλίωση. Βάσει προηγούμενων αποτελεσμάτων, που αποδείκνυαν την απελευθέρωση αραχιδονικού οξέος και διαφόρων μεταβολιτών του μετά από ενεργοποίηση των α2 –αδρενεργικών υποτύπων, μελετήσαμε εάν αυτή η απελευθέρωση αραχιδονικού οξέος, μπορούσε να προκαλέσει ενεργοποίηση μέσω φωσφορυλίωσης του CREB και μέσω ποιών μεταβολικών μονοπατιών μπορεί αυτό να πραγματοποιηθεί. Επιπλέον μελετήσαμε εάν αυτή η ενεργοποίηση του CREB ήταν παρούσα και στους 3 υποτύπους και εάν παρουσίαζε υποτυποειδικότητα. Χρησιμοποιήσαμε την τεχνική Western Blotting , σε εκχυλίσματα PC12 κυττάρων, κατάλληλα επεξεργασμένων με επινεφρίνη, παρουσία διαφόρων αναστολέων των μεταβολικών μονοπατιών του αραχιδονικού οξέος. Τα αποτελέσματά μας δείχνουν ότι η επινεφρίνη επάγει τη φωσφορυλίωση του CREB και στους 3 υποτύπους των α2-αδρενεργικών υποδοχέων σε PC12 κύτταρα. Επίσης η απελευθέρωση αραχιδονικού οξέος και η επακόλουθη φωσφορυλίωση του CREB διαμεσολαβείται από την PLC (φωσφολιπάση C) και την εποξυγενάση του κυτοχρώματος P450, αφού έχουμε αναστολή από τους ειδικούς αναστολείς U73122 και κετοκοναζόλη αντίστοιχα. Τα επίπεδα φωσφορυλίωσης ήταν ίδια στους α2A- και α2C-υποτύπους και σημαντικά μεγαλύτερα από τον α2Β-υπότυπο, αποδεικνύοντας ότι παρουσιάζεται σημαντική υποτυποειδικότητα. / α2-adrenergic receptor is divided into 3 known subtypes (α2A, α2Β, α2C) and after interaction with G-proteins (GPCRs) mediates part of actions of hormones-neurotransmitters, epinephrine and nor epinephrine in many organs, including Central Nervous System. Cell line PC12, which origins from cells of rats’ pheochromocytoma , consist a study model of nervous system in vitro and under the influence of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) is differentiated into sympathetic neurons. After transfection, these cells express the subtypes of α2-adrenergic receptors and based on data from previous experience, after activation with epinephrine, they activate a cascade of signal transduction , which includes kinases Akt and ERK1/2. Based on the fact that these molecules contribute to the activation of transcription factor CREB (cAMP response element binding protein) we study whether the activation of α2-adrenergic receptors can cause direct CREB phosphorylation. Based on previous results, which prove release of arachidonic acid and its metabolites after activation of α2-adrenergic subtypes, we study if the release of arachidonic acid could cause activation, through phosphorylation, of CREB and via which metabolic pathways this happens. Furthermore, we studied if the activation was present in all 3 subtypes and if it presented sub-specificity. We performed the Western Blotting technique in PC12 cells properly pro-incubated with epinephrine and addition of enzymic inhibitors of arachidonic acid metabolism. Our results figure that epinephrine induce CREB phosphorylation in all 3 subtypes of α2-adrenergic receptors in PC12 cells. The release of arachidonic acid and the following phosphorylation of CREB is mediated from phospholipase C (PLC) and cytochrome P450-dependent epoxygenase, as proved by inhibition with the specific inhibitors U73122 and ketokonazole, respectively. The levels of CREB phosphorylation were comparable between α2Α - and α2C- subtypes and higher than the α2Β- subtype, proving that this is an action which presents sub-specificity.

Current drugs used to treat Congestive Heart Failure target the renin-angiotensin and adrenergic systems. Studies showed increased mortality rates in patients treated with a combination of these medications. Angiotensin-AT1 and ?2-Adrenergic receptors were shown to form receptor heteromers. Blockade of one receptor in the complex can affect the signal transmitted by the other; suggesting that ligand-based therapy is not as selective as we might think. Modulating receptor trafficking after synthesis might prove to be a valid therapeutic strategy. Unfortunately, little is known about receptor assembly and transport from Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plasma Membrane. The objectives of this study are to identify the proteins that participate in the assembly of AT1R-?2AR heteromer and the regulators of the anterograde trafficking of G-Protein Coupled Receptors. This thesis introduces the role of important targets in those poorly understood processes. The identification of such targets could lead to developing better drugs with fewer adverse effects.