Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The adulteration of natural pharmaceutical formulations using synthetic drugs has increased in the last years.Adulterations have been reported in the literature, which proves the increasing concern regarding this issue, and thus raising the development of analytic methodologies that are able to detect adulterations. This study describes the development of three methodologies for the determination of five synthetic drugs classes (anorexics, antidepressants, anxiolytics, diuretic, and laxatives) in natural formulations.Two methods were developed for screening samples using voltammetry of immobilized microparticles (VIM), and cathodic stripping voltammetry (AdCSV). Another method wasdeveloped for the separation and identification of 16 drugs of 5 different classes - anorexics (amfepramone, sibutramine, and femproporex), antidepressants (bupropion, fluoxetine, paroxetine, and sertraline), anxiolytics (alprazolam, bromazepam, flurazepam, lorazepam, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, midazolam, and clonazepam), diuretic (furosemide), and laxatives (phenolphthalein and bisacodyl) - using ion-pair chromatography (IPC). The optimized conditions for the separation were as follows, eluent: tetrahydrofuran/acetronitrile/water (5/10/85) with 0.14 mol L-1 of dodecyl sodium sulfate, in pH 4, initial flow of 1.2 mL min-1, using a C18 column. The eluent s concentration and flow varied during the application of the gradient. The IMV method was applied in the screening of 49 pharmaceutical formulation samples, and 15 presented adulterations with anorectic, anxiolytic, and diuretic drugs. The CSV method was used in the screening of 99 samples, and 5 presented adulterations with anxiolytic and laxative drugs. The separation method was applied in 18 samples, and 3 presented adulterations with phenolphthalein (laxative).Both screening methods developed here were efficient in tracking samples, presenting advantages, such as speed and low reagent consumption. The separation method was validated according to linearity, detection limit, quantification limit, selectivity, precision, and analytic accuracy. Therefore, this method can be used to determine the adulterations presented here in natural pharmaceutical formulations. / A adulteração de formulações farmacêuticas naturais com fármacos sintéticos tem aumentado muito nos últimos anos. Os casos de adulteração têm sido relatados na literatura, comprovando que existe uma maior preocupação com relação a este problema, o que implica no desenvolvimento de métodos analíticos capazes de detectá-los. Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de três metodos para a determinação de fármacos sintéticos da classe dos anorexígenos, antidepressivos, ansiolíticos, diuréticos e laxantes em formulações naturais. Foram desenvolvidos dois métodos para os screening de amostras, usando voltametria de micropartículas imobilizadas (VIM) e voltametria de redissolução catódica (AdCSV). E um método de separação para identificação a quantificação de 16 fármacos de cinco classes diferentes, anorexígenos (anfepramona e sibutramina e femproporex), antidepressivos (bupropiona, fluoxetina, paroxetina e sertralina), ansiolíticos (alprazolam, bromazepam, flurazepam, lorazepam, clordiazepóxido, diazepam, midazolam e clonazepam), diurético (furosemida) e laxantes (fenolftaleína e bisacodil), usando cromatografia de par iônico (IPC). As condições otimizadas para a separação, eluente: tetrahidrofurano/acetonitrila/água, (5/10/85), contendo 0,14 mol L-1 de dodecil sulfato de sódio, em pH 4,0, fluxo incial de 1,2 mL/minuto, usando coluna C18. A concentração do eluente e o fluxo variaram durante a aplicação do gradiente. O método VIM foi aplicado no screening de 49 amostras de formulações farmacêuticas e dentre estas, 15 apresentaram adulteração por fármacos da classe dos anorexígenos, ansiolitios e diuréticos. O método AdCSV foi aplicado no screening de 99 amostras e destas, 5 apresentaram adulteração por fármacos da classe dos ansiolíticos e laxantes. O método de separação foi aplicado em 18 amostras e destas, 3 apresentaram adulteração pela fenolftaleína da classe dos laxantes. Os dois métodos de screening desenvolvidos mostram-se eficientes para o rastreio de amostras, apresentando vantagens como, rapidez e baixo consumo de reagentes. O método de separação foi validado nos parâmetros de linearidade, limite de detecção, limite de quantificação, seletividade, precisão e exatidão analítica, podendo ser empregado na determinação destas substâncias como adulterantes em formulações farmacêuticas naturais.

Normal human urine contains many anions and cations. Ionic concentrations in urine have classically been determined by spectrophotometry of color reactions, flame emission spectrophotometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, high performance liquid chromatography, or potentiometry with ion-specific electrodes. Capillary ion electrophoresis (CIE) is a form of capillary electrophoresis which uses the differential electrophoretic mobility of ions to perform a separation of an ionic mixture. Various salts can be added to urine specimens to abnormally elevate ionic concentrations and interfere with either immunoassay urine drug screening procedures or gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric confirmation techniques. Application of CIE for the direct detection of endogenous anions and anionic adulterants in human urine specimens was the purpose of this investigation. CIE was performed using a Waters Quanta 4000 Capillary Electrophoresis System with either direct or indirect ultraviolet absorption detection at 254 nm. CIE of 30 random normal urine specimens and 21 urine specimens suspected of adulteration was performed. Duplicate aliquots were assayed by CIE and by colorimetric technique for nitrite. Sixteen specimens had elevated concentrations of nitrite and/or nitrate. The correlation coefficient between nitrite CIE and colorimetric results was 0.9895. Three specimens had detectable concentrations of chromate and were suspected of being adulterated with "Urine Luck," an adulterant found to contain chromate. Two specimens suspected of being adulterated with bleach were found to only contain chloride, sulfate, and phosphate. CIE is applicable to forensic analysis of urine anion concentrations. CIE can easily quantitate numerous endogenous anions and offers a method to detect and/or confirm anion adulteration of urine specimens.

The sheer number, continuous emergence, heterogeneity and wide chemical and structural diversity of New Psychoactive Substance (NPS) products are factors being exploited by illicit drug designers to obscure detection of these compounds. Despite the advances in analytical techniques currently used by forensic and toxicological scientists in order to enable the identification of NPS, the lack of a priori knowledge of sample content makes it very challenging to detect an 'unknown' substance. The work presented in this thesis serves as a proof-of-concept by combining similarity studies, Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics, underpinned by robust pre-processing methods for the identification of existing or newly emerging NPS. It demonstrates that the use of Raman spectroscopy, in conjunction with a 'representative' NPS Raman database and chemometric techniques, has the potential for rapidly and non-destructively classifying NPS according to their chemical scaffolds. The work also demonstrates the potential of indicating the purity in formulations typical of those purchased by end users of the product i.e. 'street-like' mixtures. Five models were developed, and three of these provided an insight into the identification and classification of NPS depending on their purity. These are: the 'NPS and non-NPS/benchtop' model, the 'NPS reference standards/handheld' model and the 'NPS and non-NPS/handheld' model. In the 'NPS and non-NPS/benchtop' model (laser λex = 785 nm), NPS internet samples were projected onto a PCA model derived from a Raman database comprising 'representative' NPSs and cutting agent/ adulterant reference standards. This proved the most successful in suggesting the likely chemical scaffolds for NPS present in samples bought from the internet. In the 'NPS reference standards/handheld' model (laser λex = 1064 nm), NPS reference standards were projected onto a PCA model derived from a Raman database comprising 'representative' NPSs. This was the most successful of the three models with respect to the accurate identification of pure NPS. This model suggested chemical scaffolds in 89% of samples compared to 76% obtained with the benchtop instrument, which generally had higher fluorescent backgrounds. In the 'NPS and non-NPS/handheld' model (laser λex = 1064 nm), NPS internet samples were projected onto a PCA model derived from a Raman database comprising 'representative' NPSs and cutting agent/ adulterant reference standards. This was the most successful in differentiating between NPS internet samples dependent on their purity. In all models, the main challenges for identification of NPS were spectra displaying high fluorescent backgrounds and low purity profiles. The 'first pass' matching identification of NPS internet samples on a handheld platform was improved to ~50% using a laser source of 1064 nm because of a reduction in fluorescence at this wavelength. We outline limitations in using a handheld platform that may have added to problems with appropriate identification of NPS in complex mixtures. However, the developed models enabled the appropriate selection of Raman signals crucial for identification of NPS via data reduction, and the extraction of important patterns from noisy and/or corrupt data. The models constitute a significant contribution in this field with respect to suggesting the likely chemical scaffold of an 'unknown' molecule. This insight may accelerate the screening of newly emerging NPS in complex matrices by assigning them to: a structurally similar known molecule (supercluster/ cluster); or a substance from the same EMCDDA/EDND class of known compounds. Critical challenges in instrumentation, chemometrics, and the complexity of samples have been identified and described. As a result, future work should focus on: optimising the pre-processing of Raman data collected with a handheld platform and a 1064 nm laser λex; and optimising the 'representative' database by including other properties and descriptors of existing NPS.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The use of herbal medicines as an alternative treatment has increased by the belief that natural products do not cause damage to health. However cases in which natural products are added of synthetic drugs not declared, presumably to enhance the effectiveness them have been reported in the literature. In the case of weight loss formulations the main adulterants found are appetite suppressants, antidepressants, benzodiazepines, diuretics and laxatives. The identification of these frauds is only possible by applying the analytical methods able to detect the presence of adulterants in the formulations. This paper describes the development of two methods employing separation techniques with electrochemical detection for the determination of diuretics and laxatives as adulterants in herbal products. The method employing capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) with contactless conductivity detection (C4D) allows the simultaneous determination of amiloride, chlorthalidone, hydrochlorothiazide, furosemide and phenolphthalein in the following optimized conditions: working electrolyte phosphate buffer 20 mmol L-1 (pH 9.2) containing 30% methanol (v/v) separation potential -15 kV, temperature 25 °C, injection hydrodynamic by gravity in 20 cm for 60 seconds. The method employing ion pair chromatography (IPC) with pulsed amperometric detection (PAD) allows the determination of hydrochlorothiazide, chlorthalidone and furosemide on the following conditions: mobile phase phosphate buffer 5 mmol L-1 (pH 4.5) containing SDS 0.3 mmol L-1 and 50% methanol (v/v), sample potential of +0.8 V, the cleaning potential of -0.2 V and +1.0 V, and flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. Both methods were validated in the parameters of linearity, limit of detection limit of quantification, precision, accuracy and selectivity, and were applied in the analysis of 26 samples of natural weight loss products purchased from pharmacies in nine Brazilian states. In three of 26 samples were identified the presence of illegal diuretic hydrochlorothiazide in concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 7.0 mg/capsule. In addition, five other samples called naturals contained declared on the label of the packaging the presence of synthetic diuretics hydrochlorothiazide or furosemide. Both methods were able to identify the adulterants present in samples with high selectivity and sensitivity. Furthermore, they presented very approximate results in the concentration of adulterants found in the formulations. There is still no unified regulation established by the government for control of herbal products. Each country has its laws, but the marketing is global. Maybe this is the reason why the adulteration of natural products has been a recurring practice in various parts of the world. Therefore, effective regulation for the natural products can result in the reduction of these offenses, and punishment of offenders, thus ensuring the rights of consumers to make quality treatment, safe and effective, without prejudice to health. Keywords: Pharmaceutical formulations, adulterants, diuretics, laxatives, methods of separation, electrochemical detection. / O uso de ervas medicinais como tratamento alternativo tem crescido por se acreditar que produtos naturais não causam danos à saúde. No entanto casos de adulteração de produtos naturais com adição não declarada de fármacos sintéticos, presumidamente para aumentar a eficácia dos mesmos, têm sido relatados na literatura. No caso de formulações emagrecedoras os principais adulterantes já encontrados são anorexígenos, antidepressivos, benzodiazepínicos, diuréticos e laxantes. A identificação destas fraudes só é possível com a aplicação de metodologias analíticas capazes de detectar a presença destes adulterantes nas formulações. Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de duas metodologias empregando técnicas de separação com detecção eletroquímica para a determinação de diuréticos e laxantes como adulterantes em produtos naturais. O método empregando eletroforese capilar de zona (CZE) com detecção por condutividade sem contato (C4D) permite a determinação simultânea de amilorida, clortalidona, hidroclorotiazida, furosemida e fenolftaleína nas condições otimizadas: eletrólito de trabalho tampão fosfato 20 mmol L-1 (pH 9,2) contendo metanol 30% (v/v), potencial de separação -15 Kv, temperatura 25 °C; injeção hidrodinâmica por gravidade em 20 cm durante 60 s. O método empregando cromatografia de par iônico (IPC) com detecção por amperometria pulsada (PAD) permite a determinação de hidroclorotiazida, clortalidona e furosemida nas seguintes condições: fase móvel tampão fosfato 5 mmol L-1 (pH 4,5) contendo SDS 0,3 mmol L-1 e metanol 50% (v/v); potencial de amostragem de +0,8 V; potenciais de limpeza de -0,2 V e +1,0 V; e fluxo de 1,0 mL/min. Os dois métodos foram validados nos parâmetros de linearidade, limite de detecção, limite de quantificação, precisão, exatidão e seletividade e, foram aplicados na análise de 26 amostras de produtos naturais emagrecedores adquiridos de farmácias de manipulação de nove estados brasileiros. Em três das 26 amostras foi identificada a presença ilegal do diurético hidroclorotiazida em concentrações que variaram de 0,6 a 7,0 mg/cápsula. Além disso, outras cinco amostras ditas naturais continham declarado no rótulo das embalagens a presença dos diuréticos sintéticos hidroclorotiazida ou furosemida. Os dois métodos foram capazes de identificar os adulterantes presentes nas amostras com alta seletividade e sensibilidade. Além disso, apresentaram resultados bastante aproximados com relação às concentrações encontradas dos adulterantes nas formulações. Ainda não existe uma regulamentação unificada estabelecida pelos órgãos governamentais para o controle de produtos fitoterápicos. Cada país tem a sua legislação, porém a comercialização destes produtos é globalizada. Talvez por isso a adulteração de produtos naturais vem sendo uma prática recorrente em diversas partes do mundo. Logo, uma regulamentação efetiva para os produtos de origem natural, pode resultar na redução destas infrações, ou punição dos infratores, garantindo assim os direitos dos consumidores de realizar um tratamento de qualidade, seguro e eficaz, sem prejuízo à saúde.

Diabetes Mellitus is considered a disease in ascension worldwide. In Brazil, the rate of diabetes increased by 40% in the last six years. The use of medicinal plants in the treatment of diabetes has great relevance, as a chronic treatment, by seem harmless and be easily accessible for the population. The literature highlights the presence of drugs in herbal formulations used in the treatment of diabetes, which can lead to serious consequences such as metabolic acidosis and severe hypoglycemia. In the last decade, the ANVISA has intensified the control and concern with the market for herbal medicines in Brazil. As a consequence, it is demanded the development of methodologies for detection of the hypoglycemic drugs added as contaminants in vegetable-based formulations used in the treatment of diabetes. In this sense the present study developed and validated a method by high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection for determination of some hypoglycemic adulterants. Mobile phase was composed of 0.1% phosphoric acid (pH 2.0) (90%:0%) and acetonitrile (10%:100%) The following conditions were defined; column C18; 230 nm; and flow rate of 0.5 mL. min-1 to 0.9 ml. min-1, 20 minutes of analysis. Another method based on capillary electrophoresis, MEKC UV, was tested to analyse the same hypoglycemic agents. However, the conditions studied did not present acceptable results. The method based on HPLC UV proved to be suitable for the simultaneous determination of metformin, glipizide, chlorpropamide, gliclazide, glibenclamide and glimepririda and it showed low limits of detection and quantification, besides to be specific, precise, exact and linear (p < 0.01), within the determined range (2.5 - 15mg L-1). After validation, the HPLC UV method was applied in the analysis of twenty samples acquired in the national market. Among the samples analyzed were not detected the presence of adulterants validated in this work. / Diabetes Mellitus (tipo II) é considerada uma doença em ascensão no mundo inteiro. No Brasil, o índice de diabéticos cresceu 40% em seis anos. O uso de plantas medicinais no tratamento desta patologia crônica tem grande relevância, por parecer inofensivo e ser de fácil acesso à população. A literatura destaca que é possível encontrar a presença de fármacos em formulações fitoterápicas utilizadas no tratamento do diabetes, podendo trazer consequências graves, como acidose metabólica e hipoglicemia grave. Na última década a Anvisa tem intensificado a fiscalização e a preocupação com o mercado de fitoterápicos no Brasil. Para tanto, se torna grande a procura por metodologias capazes de detectar fármacos hipoglicemiantes adicionados de forma ilegal em formulações de base vegetal utilizadas no tratamento do Diabetes Mellitus (tipo II). Neste sentido no presente trabalho foi desenvolvido e validado um método por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência com detecção ultravioleta (HPLC-UV) para determinação de adulterantes hipoglicemiantes. Foram definidas as seguintes condições: fase móvel ácido fosfórico 0,1% (pH 2,0) (90% a 0%) acetonitrila (10% a 100%); coluna C18; 230 nm; e fluxo de 0,5 mL. min-1 a 0,9 mL. min-1, com menos de 20 minutos de análise. Outro método, através de Cromatografia Capilar de Eletrocinética Micelar (MEKC-UV) foi utilizado para análise destes hipoglicemiantes, porém não se obteve resultados aceitáveis. O método por HPLC-UV mostrou-se adequado para a determinação simultânea dos fármacos metformina, glipizida, clorpropamida, glicazida, glibenclamida e glimepririda, visto que apresentou baixos limites de detecção e quantificação, além de mostrar-se específico, preciso, exato e linear (p< 0,01), dentro do intervalo testado (2,5 15 mg. L-1). Após a validação, o método HPLC-UV foi aplicado na análise de vinte amostras adquiridas no mercado nacional, dentre estas não foram detectados a presença dos adulterantes pesquisados.