The services sector has played an increasingly important role in international trade in recent years. The negotiations under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) in recent years have initiated a global drive to liberalise services trade. However, this liberalisation process holds many challenges, especially for developing countries that do not have an adequate regulatory system to sufficiently support and promote these new export sectors. The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) in South Africa recognised a need to undertake scientific research to identify the development and export potential of key services sectors. In the period from 2005 until 2009, the services sector contributed 65% on average to the GDP of South Africa. In 2010, 79% of the labour force in South Africa was employed in the services sector. However, services only contributed 19% to total exports from South Africa in the period from 2005 until 2009 (ITC, 2010a). The largest services export sectors for South Africa over the five–year period were travel (63%), transportation (11%), and business services (9%). This indicates that South Africa?s services exports are mostly concentrated in one sector, namely travel, and this clearly indicates the need for South Africa to diversify exports of services into other sectors. Export promotion is one of the methods that governments can use in order to stimulate the export growth of a country. Given the need to increase and diversify the exports of South African services, this study aimed to investigate the literature in order to establish possible guidelines for the export promotion of services specifically. Export promotion instruments should aim to identify potential export opportunities in order to allocate scarce government resources to the active promotion of the sectors with the highest export potential. In order to aid government with this process, Cuyvers, De Pelsmacker and Roozen (1995) developed a decision support model (DSM) that could determine potential export opportunities for products in Belgium by using a scientifically–based method. This model was adapted for South African products in 2007 and further refined in 2009 and 2010 for the DTI in South Africa. In all cases, the DSM analysis was only applied to products and the services sector was never taken into consideration owing to the data differences and the nature of services. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a similar model for the services sector in South Africa that could identify the sectors and countries with the highest potential for services export diversification. The results of such a model could also be incorporated into a services sector strategy for South Africa. Such a services strategy does not currently exist for South Africa and if the results of this model were incorporated into such a strategy, it would be the first of its kind. The study reviewed the methodology of the DSM for products and found that the methodology of the first two filters could be applied to the available services data in a similar manner. However, owing to the nature of services and the limited availability of data, the third and fourth filters had to be adapted to consider these differences. Therefore, a new model was developed to incorporate the nature of services, and the new model was named the export opportunities model (EOM) for services. A new methodology was developed for the third and fourth filters in the EOM for services. A new cell structure was also constructed to categorise the results of the EOM according to the specific market characteristics, which could be used in export promotion strategies to develop specific promotion instruments for each type of market. The results of the EOM for services on a geographical basis showed that the highest export opportunities for services in South Africa were in Eastern and South–Eastern Asia, followed by the European market. The results also identified specific sectors that have high export potential for South African services. The sectors with the highest export potential are travel, transportation, construction services, communications services and other business services. These results can be incorporated into a services sector export promotion strategy for the DTI in South Africa. The study also compared the results of the DSM for products with the results of the EOM for services, in order to establish guidelines on regional export opportunities for both products and services. The study found that the highest export opportunities were in the Asian and European regions. The DTI in South Africa could use these product/country combinations and services/country combinations to develop specific export promotion instruments and strategies for each region in the world. / Thesis (Ph.D. (International Trade))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

SMEs can play a significant role in the economy as drivers of economic growth and job creation. Many SMEs are, however constrained by their limited access to finance. This study examines the source of finance of firms in South Africa and estimates the importance of finance as a predictor of output per worker. Using the 2007 World Bank Enterprise Survey, the study focuses on the firm’s access to finance, or sources of finance, as a predictor of the productivity of South African firms. Other factors that are taken into account include sources of finance such as the overdraft of the firm, collateral available and the type of financial institution used to acquire financing. These covariates all play an integral role in whether or not the firm will receive the financing, the amount granted and the repayment terms. Empirical analysis is done with a Cobb–Douglas production function regression to determine how output per worker is influenced by various factors. The results show that output per worker improves as additional finance variables are added to the regression model. Using an access to finance dummy as the dependent variable, a logistic regression model is used to calculate the probability of access to finance as a constraint based on the independent variables. The results of the logistic regression show that the probability of firms’ experiencing access to finance as a constraint is decreased by variables such as fixed assets and increase with negative factors such existing debt and collateral. These results are expected based on previous research on the topic and confirms that access and finance sources are determinants for firm growth. Recommendations include more extensive research on the topic, with panel data over a longer period and specific to a country. Policy recommendations include amended evaluation techniques, adapted to the individual firm’s requirements and strengths. / Thesis (M.Com. (Economics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

In order to make decisions to approve filling stations, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) needs to be conducted and evaluated by the competent authority. Although numerous filling stations have been authorised for operation, the quality of the EIA reports that form the basis for decision making has never been evaluated. The evaluation of the quality of EIA reports on filling station developments by means of an adapted Lee–Colley review package formed the basis of this research. The main conclusion was that the quality of the EIA reports for filling station developments, as reviewed by the adapted review package, is generally of a poor standard. This means that a decision to approve a new filling station is generally based on just enough information to the competent authority. The main deficiencies in the EIA reports related to site description, cumulative impacts and mitigation measures, while the environment description, identification of impacts, scoping of impacts, assessment of impact significance and emphasis (impacts) in the reports were of good quality. The results from the reviewed EIA’s correspond mostly with the literature on the review of EIA reports. / Thesis (M. Environmental Management)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Tourism is currently the third largest industry within South Africa. Many African countries, including South Africa, have the potential to achieve increased economic growth and development with the aid of the tourism sector. As tourism is a great earner of foreign exchange and also creates employment opportunities, especially low–skilled employment, it is identified as a sector that can aid developing countries to increase economic growth and development. Accurate forecasting of tourism demand is important due to the perishable nature of tourism products and services. Little research on forecasting tourism demand in South Africa can be found. The aim of this study is to forecast tourism demand (international tourist arrivals) to South Africa by making use of different causal models and to compare the forecasting accuracy of the causal models used. Accurate forecasts of tourism demand may assist policy–makers and business concerns with decisions regarding future investment and employment. An overview of South African tourism trends indicates that although domestic arrivals surpass foreign arrivals in terms of volume, foreign arrivals spend more in South Africa than domestic tourists. It was also established that tourist arrivals from Africa (including the Middle East), form the largest market of international tourist arrivals to South Africa. Africa is, however, not included in the empirical analysis mainly due to data limitations. All the other markets namely Asia, Australasia, Europe, North America, South America and the United Kingdom are included as origin markets for the empirical analysis and this study therefore focuses on intercontinental tourism demand for South Africa. A review of the literature identified several determinants of tourist arrivals, including income, relative prices, transport cost, climate, supply–side factors, health risks, political stability as well as terrorism and crime. Most researchers used tourist arrivals/departures or tourist spending/receipts as dependent variables in empirical tourism demand studies. The first approach used to forecast tourism demand is a single equation approach, more specifically an Autoregressive Distributed Lag Model. This relationship between the explanatory variables and the dependent variable was then used to ex post forecast tourism demand for South Africa from the six markets identified earlier. Secondly, a system of equation approach, more specifically a Vector Autoregressive Model and Vector Error Correction Model were estimated for each of the identified six markets. An impulse response analysis was undertaken to determine the effect of shocks in the explanatory variables on tourism demand using the Vector Error Correction Model. It was established that it takes on average three years for the effect on tourism demand to disappear. A variance decomposition analysis was also done using the Vector Error Correction Model to determine how each variable affects the percentage forecast variance of a certain variable. It was found that income plays an important role in explaining the percentage forecast variance of almost every variable. The Vector Autoregressive Model was used to estimate the short–run relationship between the variables and to ex post forecast tourism demand to South Africa from the six identified markets. The results showed that enhanced marketing can be done in origin markets with a growing GDP in order to attract more arrivals from those areas due to the high elasticity of the real GDP per capita in the long run and its positive impact on tourist arrivals. It is mainly up to the origin countries to increase their income per capita. Focussing on infrastructure development and maintenance could contribute to an increase in future tourist arrivals. It is evident that arrivals from Europe might have a negative relationship with the number of hotel rooms available since tourists from this region might prefer accommodation with a safari atmosphere such as bush lodges. Investment in such accommodation facilities and the marketing of such facilities to Europeans may contribute to an increase in arrivals from Europe. The real exchange rate also plays a role in the price competitiveness of the destination country. Therefore, in order for South Africa to be more price competitive, inflation rate control can be a way to increase price competitiveness rather than to have a fixed exchange rate. Forecasting accuracy was tested by estimating the Mean Absolute Percentage Error, Root Mean Square Error and Theil’s U of each model. A Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA) model was estimated for each origin market as a benchmark model to determine forecasting accuracy against this univariate time series approach. The results showed that the Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average model achieved more accurate predictions whereas the Vector Autoregressive model forecasts were more accurate than the Autoregressive Distributed Lag Model forecasts. Policy–makers can use both the SARIMA and VAR model, which may generate more accurate forecast results in order to provide better policy recommendations. / Thesis (M.Com. (Economics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

The importance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the economy should not be overlooked. The main function of SMEs is to contribute to the economic activities in a country, through the provision of goods and services to the public or other firms. These goods and services could be traded internationally, thus increasing a country?s export performance. It is important for economic growth that SMEs grow within their respective economies. One way that SMEs can achieve growth is through internationalisation. Firms are internationalising faster than ever before (because of advances in telecommunications and transportation) and internationalisation theories that can provide practical guidance to firms are more important today than in the past. A firm?s ability to internationalise no longer only depends on the quality of the product, the delivery terms and competitive prices. Internationalisation increasingly depends on the ability and willingness of financial institutions to grant credit. Obtaining trade finance has become a major hindrance to SME internationalisation, especially in Africa. By overcoming the difficulties in obtaining trade finance, African SMEs will be able to expand into foreign markets. The purpose of this study is to determine how African SMEs can overcome trade finance barriers to internationalisation. SMEs can do so by mitigating the risks involved in every international transaction and by becoming ?trade finance ready?. A trade finance facility that is well suited for African SMEs (because it revolves around identifying and mitigating the risks involved with their international transactions) is structured trade and commodity finance. In trading with China, African SMEs can obtain structured trade and commodity finance from a specialist financial institution that focuses on the Chinese market (which is the focus of this study). China Construction Bank (Johannesburg branch), through their association with Rand-Asia Trade Finance, provides structured trade and commodity finance to African SMEs. The key to receiving structured trade and commodity finance is that these SMEs, together with China Construction Bank (Jhb) and Rand-Asia Trade Finance have to mitigate the risks involved with their international transactions so that the SMEs can become ?trade finance ready?. / Thesis (M.Com. (International Commerce))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

This research was aimed at validating the PHQ–9 in an African context. This study forms part of the project of Psychosocial Health and Biomarkers in an African context (FORT3, Wissing, 2008). The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ–9) is a nine–item depression scale that has the potential of being a dual–purpose instrument to establish the diagnosis of a depressive disorder, as well as the grade of symptom severity (Kroenke, Spitzer & Williams, 2001). The PHQ–9 was administered with criterion related measures to a multicultural convenience sample of 2214 participants from the North West Province of South Africa, including two groups of adolescents (n1 = 1480 and n2 = 559) and an availability sample of adults (n3 = 185). Instruments to determine criterion validity were the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), designed to detect symptoms of mental disorders; the Mental Health Continuum - Short Form for Adults (MHC–SF) which measures the degree of emotional, social and psychological well–being; and the New General Self–Efficacy Scale (NGSE) designed to measure an individual’s general self–efficacy. Descriptive statistics for the PHQ–9 including its reliability in the various groups is reported. The PHQ–9 manifested a Cronbach Alph are liability index of 0.86. Criterion–related validity was supported by significant correlations between the PHQ–9 and criterion measures. Confirmatory factor analysis for the PHQ–9 yielded a one–factor solution in all groups. The percentage variance explained ranged between 34.71% and 46.62%. Exploratory factor analyses yielded two factors in all groups with the second factor comprised of no more than 2 items and thus interpreted as a minor factor. The construct validity obtained in this research indicates that the PHQ–9 may be a valid measure to identify depression in a South African context. Based on the psychometric properties found in this study, it can be concluded that the PHQ–9 is a valid measure of depression in two of the samples selected for this study. Future studies may further validate this instrument in specific language and cultural groups, and explore the cross–cultural measurement equivalence. / Thesis (M.A. (Research Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

An estimated 30 to 36 million people worldwide are living with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). In 2009 about 5.7 million of the 30 to 36 million people who are infected with HIV were living in South Africa, making South Africa the country with the largest number of people infected with HIV in the world (UNGASS, 2010). Van Dyk (2008) states that HIV infection and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) are accompanied by symptoms of psycho–social distress, but relatively little is known of the direct effect of HIV and AIDS on psychological well–being. The psychological distress is mainly due to the difficulties HIV brings to daily life and the harsh reality of the prognosis of the illness (Van Dyk, 2008). It is not clear whether people infected with HIV who are unaware of their HIV status show more psychological symptoms than people in a group not infected with HIV. The research question for the current study was therefore whether people with and without HIV infection differ in their psycho–social symptoms and strengths before they know their HIV status. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to explore the psychosocial health profiles of people with and without HIV and AIDS before they knew their infection status. A cross–sectional survey design was used for gathering psychological data. This was part of a multi–disciplinary study where the participants’ HIV status was determined after obtaining their informed consent and giving pre– and post–test counselling. This study falls in the overlap of the South African leg of the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology study (PURE–SA) that investigates the health transition and chronic diseases of lifestyle in urban and rural areas (Teo, Chow, Vaz, Rangarajan, & Ysusf, 2009), and the FORT2 and 3 projects (FORT2 = Understanding and promoting psychosocial health, resilience and strengths in an African context; Fort 3 = The prevalence of levels of psychosocial health: Dynamics and relationships with biomarkers of (ill) health in the South African contexts) (Wissing, 2005, 2008) on psychological well–being and its biological correlates. All the baseline data were collected during 2005. Of the 1 025 participants who completed all of the psychological health questionnaires, 153 (14.9%) were infected with HIV and 863 were not infected with HIV (since the HIV status of nine of the participants was not known, they were not included in the study). In the urban communities 435 participants completed the psychological health questionnaires, of whom 68 (15.6%) were infected with HIV and 367 were not infected with HIV. In the rural communities, 581 participants completed the psychological health questionnaires, of whom 85 (14.6%) were infected with HIV and 496 were not infected with HIV. The validated Setswana versions of the following seven psychological health questionnaires were used: Affectometer 2 (AFM), Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), Community Collective Efficacy Scale (CCES), Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC–SF), New General Self–efficacy Scale (NGSE), Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). Descriptive statistics were determined for all measures for all the participants with, and without HIV. Significant differences in psychosocial profiles among individuals with and without HIV and AIDS and also between those in the rural and urban areas were determined by means of t–tests and by a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Practical significance was determined by the size of the effects. The results for the entire group showed statistically significant differences between the two groups of participants who were infected with HIV and those not infected with HIV regarding their sense of coherence and their perspective on the community’s capacity to succeed in joint activities, but these differences were of only small practical significance. The HIV–infected participants in the urban areas displayed statistically and practically a lower sense of coherence and viewed themselves as less capable of meeting task demands in community contexts, than did the participants not infected with HIV. Though the participants not infected with HIV in the rural group had, statistically and practically, a significantly greater capacity to succeed in joint community activities than the participants infected with HIV, an interesting finding was that the participants infected with HIV experienced more positive affect than the participants not infected with HIV. The research showed that people with and without HIV infection differ in some respects in their psycho–social symptoms and strengths even before they are conscious of their HIV status. It is striking that the differences found on the psychological measures for the participants reflected a personal sense of social coherence and perspective on their community’s capacity to succeed in joint activities, which was lower in the case of participants infected with HIV, and might therefore have led to high–risk social behaviours and consequent infections. It might be that the participants with a relatively lower sense of social coherence, integration, and co–operation towards collectively achieving meaningful goals were more inclined to manifest behaviours that would lead to detrimental consequences (in this case HIV infection) for themselves and others. The higher level of positive affect in the rural group of the participants infected with HIV is still unexplained and requires further research. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the transformation process that has taken place in the local government sphere over the past sixteen years. This process is based on the Constitution, Act 108 of 1996. Transformation applies to all areas of society, including the disabled – the focus point of this study. More specifically the focus of the study is on the effect of the transformation process on the disabled. The study was done within Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality, taking into consideration the Constitution of 1996, as well as internal policies. The main focus during this study is to emphasize the position of the disabled, focusing on recognition, basic needs, funding, promotion, careers, and the incorporation of the disabled into the Municipality. / Thesis (M. Development and Management)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Background: In South Africa, as in many other developing countries, iron deficiency (the most common micronutrient deficiency) still remains unresolved; while obesity has emerged as a public health challenge causing increases in the incidence and prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Research has shown that certain iron indices are associated with both anthropometric and biological markers of CVDs. Adiposity is thought to modulate the pathway linking iron status to CVDs. Objective: To examine the associations between iron indices, anthropometric and biological markers of CVDs in an African population undergoing transition. Methods: This thesis was based on secondary analysis of data generated during the Transition and Health during Urbanisation of South Africans (THUSA) study; and primary and secondary analysis of the baseline Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. Both studies were cross–sectional in design and were conducted between 1996–1998 and in 2005 respectively in the North West Province of South Africa. The 1854 men and women participants in the THUSA study (>15years) and 1262 women participants in the PURE study (>35years) were included in the analysis. The relationship between iron and anthropometric indicators of CVD risk was examined in the THUSA study while that of iron status, anthropometric and biological markers of CVD risk was examined in the PURE study. Results: In the THUSA study, ferritin was positively associated with body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist to hip ratio (WHR), body fat and subscapular skinfold (r=0.141, 0.359, 0.396, 0.308, 0.141 respectively for men and 0.126, 0.232, 0.319, 0.126, 0.105 respectively for women; p<0.01). Only the women showed decreased serum iron concentration with increasing BMI (p<0.05). WC and WHR increased with increasing serum ferritin concentration for both genders (p<0.05). As for the PURE study, associations between iron status parameters and CVD risk factors were generally weak (r<0.3, p<0.01) and were not retained after adjusting for valid confounders. WC and WHR increased with increasing ferritin concentration (p<0.05). Conclusion: Although these results do not indicate any significant association between iron indices and biological markers of CVD, its association with anthropometric indices gives an indication of the possible contribution of iron in the aetiology of CVDs. Thus, it may be necessary to exercise caution on the emphasis placed on iron as a nutrient and iron intervention programmes because of the suggestive role of iron in CVD development. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

This study begins with the question: "Is there a place for a Christian ethical code of conduct in the diverse and complex business world of today?" In chapter 2 I explain the context wherein one should understand this question. If you look at the history of South Africa you will see that there was discrimination that took place over a long period of time on the basis of race, religion and gender and that makes this issue a very sensitive one. The reason why it is so sensitive is if there were to be a Christian ethical code of conduct in the workplace could it lead to discrimination again? That is not allowed to happen under the current Constitution of South Africa. But the other side is also true, if you don?t have a Christian ethical code won?t you loose the beautiful things Scripture gives us on how to treat all people equally and fairly within the workplace? This study will show that according to the Constitution of South Africa it is possible to have a Christian ethical code of conduct as long it does not exclude any employee. In chapter 3 we have a look at Scripture that gives us guidelines on how to treat all people and also people in the workplace. Here are some examples: * the way employees should be handled; * the number of working hours the employees should be working; * the remuneration of the employees – is it fair; * how the Shareholders? / Stakeholders? interests are looked after; * the manner in which the business is being managed; * the Constitutional business environment; * the international law that transcends borders where macrobusinesses do business. In chapter 4 we look at the Christian ethical perspective in the business. We look at the role of the economy and the core values to manage a business. In chapter 5 we end with an example of a workable Christian ethical code of conduct and we compare two large business codes of conduct. / Thesis (Th.M. (Ethics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.