It is in military engagements the task of the air defense to protect valuable assets such as air bases from being destroyed by hostile aircrafts and missiles. In order to fulfill this mission, the defenders are equipped with sensors and firing units. To infer whether a target is hostile and threatening or not is far from a trivial task. This is dealt with in a threat evaluation process, in which the targets are ranked based upon their estimated level of threat posed to the defended assets. Once the degree of threat has been estimated, the problem of weapon allocation comes into the picture. Given that a number of threatening targets have been identified, the defenders need to decide on whether any firing units shall be allocated to the targets, and if so, which firing unit to engage which target. To complicate matters, the outcomes of such engagements are usually stochastic. Moreover, there are often tight time constraints on how fast the threat evaluation and weapon allocation processes need to be executed. There are already today a large number of threat evaluation and weapon allocation (TEWA) systems in use, i.e. decision support systems aiding military decision makers with the threat evaluation and weapon allocation processes. However, despite the critical role of such systems, it is not clear how to evaluate the performance of the systems and their algorithms. Hence, the work in thesis is focused on the development and evaluation of TEWA systems, and the algorithms for threat evaluation and weapon allocation being part of such systems. A number of algorithms for threat evaluation and static weapon allocation are suggested and implemented, and testbeds for facilitating the evaluation of these are developed. Experimental results show that the use of particle swarm optimization is suitable for real-time target-based weapon allocation in situations involving up to approximately ten targets and ten firing units, while it for larger problem sizes gives better results to make use of an enhanced greedy maximum marginal return algorithm, or a genetic algorithm seeded with the solution returned by the greedy algorithm. / Fredrik Johansson forskar också vid Skövde Högskola, Informatics Research Centre / Fredrik Johansson also does research at the University of Skövde, Informatics Research Centre

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of History / Donald J. Mrozek / During the Cold War, the United States’ foreign policy relied heavily on its ability to project military power. More often than not, the central component of force projection rested on the United States military’s effectiveness in employing air power both by establishing air superiority and through accurate delivery of ordnance. As the primary service tasked with conducting aerial warfare, the United States Air Force (USAF) was expected to maintain this capability either to achieve deterrence or, when necessary, to military action. In January 1973, the USAF seemed incapable of performing the latter task due to the North Vietnamese Integrated Air Defense System’s (NV-IAD’s) effectiveness in Operation Rolling Thunder and its successor, Operation Linebacker. Eighteen years later, Air Force aircraft spearheaded the Coalition’s air attack on the Iraqi Integrated Air Defense System (I-IADS) in January 1991. Considered by many to be the most effective air defense system outside the Soviet Union’s, the I-IADS was expected to exact heavy casualties from the allied forces. Instead, in less than twenty days, the USAF’s dominance was so complete that politicians, analysts and military historians quickly proclaimed a “Revolution in Military Affairs” (RMA). The majority of the current historiography credits advances in precision-guided munitions (PGMs), airframes, and computer technology as the impetus for the RMA. Others have claimed that the USAF’s training methodology and construction of advanced training sites such as the Red Flag complex at Nellis Air Force Base were the primary drivers for the Air Force’s success. While acknowledging the role all of these factors played, this dissertation also demonstrates the key role played by the development of Suppression of Enemy Air Defense (SEAD) doctrine from January 1973 through August 1991. In the aftermath of the American war in Vietnam, the Air Force considered defense suppression a tactical task that was secondary to the primary mission of putting ordnance on target. At the end of Desert Storm, proponents of the Air Force’s SEAD doctrine had convincing evidence that an enemy IADS was not just an ancillary weapons array, but functioned a critical national system just like manufacturing, government, or the people’s will. The process by which this viewpoint changed had effects on the development of the United States Air Force’s Cold War conventional capability in general, and the development of training methods, electronic warfare platforms, and modern airframes specifically.

Under 1900-talet tog tekniken stora framsteg inom både flygande hot och luftförsvar bland såväl stridsflyg som radar och luftvärnssystem. Den här utvecklingen var en kamp mellan de medel som användes och de motmedel som fanns för att förhindra nyttjandet av dem. Hur den här kampen såg ut mellan 1940 och 1990 är beskrivet ur ett tekniskt perspektiv i den här rapporten som tar sin början vid andra världskriget och slutar strax innan Gulfkriget.  I rapporten är det två frågeställningar som har legat till grund för forskningen,  Vilka var några av de viktigaste tekniksprången som påverkade utvecklingen av luftvärnet mellan 1940 och 1990? Hur kan kampen mellan medel och motmedel beskrivas i tidsperioden mellan 1940 och 1990? Syftet med arbetet är att beskriva den utveckling av motmedel inom luftförsvar som fortgick från 1940 fram till 1990.  Det som studien tog fram som de viktigaste tekniksprången under den studerade tidsperioden var utvecklingen av magnetronen, jetmotorn och de bakåtsvepta vingarna. Dessa tre hade störst inverkan på den utveckling som skedde mellan åren 1940 och 1990.  Kampen mellan medel och motmedel kan på många sett ses i utvecklingen av luftarenan och dess försvar på samma sätt idag som den kan under den nämnda tidsperioden. Denna kamp tydliggörs i att den är dominerad av medelsidan och att motmedlen är i ett stadie av ständig reaktion till utvecklingen av medel. / During the 20th century, technology made great strides in both flying threats and air defense in categories such as combat aircrafts, radar, and air defense systems. This development was a struggle between the means used and the countermeasures available to prevent their use. What this struggle looked like between 1940 and 1990 is described from a technical perspective in this report, which begins with the Second World War and ends shortly before the Gulf War. In the report, there are two issues that have formed the basis for the research, What were some of the most important technological leaps that influenced the development of the air defense between 1940 and 1990? How can the struggle between means and countermeasures be described in the period between 1940 and 1990? The purpose of the work is to describe the development of countermeasures in air defense that took place from 1940 until 1990. What the study identified as the most important technological leaps during the studied period was the development of the magnetron, the jet engine, and the backward-swept wings. These three had the greatest impact on the development that took place between the years 1940 and 1990. The struggle between means and countermeasures can in many ways be seen in the development of the air arena and its defense in the same way today as it can during the mentioned period. This struggle is made clear by the fact that it is dominated by the means and that the countermeasures are in a stage of constant reaction to the development of the means.

設立防空識別區的根本目的是為了維護國家空防安全，基本理念是｢禦敵於國門之外｣，是國家行使自保權的需要，是一個主權國家的重要防禦手段。空軍軍事法院院長刑洪波曾說：作為一個預警概念，防空識別區制度具有國家性、單方性、穩定性、防禦性、強制性五個方面的特性。防空識別區的劃設與國家安全的關係是緊密不分的，雖然防空識別區是由自身國家所劃設，在國際上是不具有國際法效力，但是此區可以說是一個國家空防能夠及早預警的延伸範圍，所以它的劃設是具有其必要性的。而如何劃設本身國家的防空識別區便與國際政治上國家與國家之間的影響力有密切關係。 近年來中共經濟發展迅速，在國際事務上已成關鍵，有發展成強權國家之勢，在2012年發生了日本收購釣魚島事件，對於東海戰略平衡上，破壞了中、日、台在東海上的平衡，也影響了中共防空識別區的劃定及周邊航道安全的維護。而2013年中共設立東海防空識別區，對於國際造成嚴重影響，尤其是東海地區局勢更加動盪。中共在2015年1月15日發布飛航公告，擬在台灣海峽劃設一條南北向新航路，與東西向三條新航路，此舉動造成台灣海峽及附近區域安全上的強烈衝擊。而美國為了圍堵、威攝和遏制中國大陸的崛起，近年來不斷的和日、韓等國家在黃海、東海、南海地區頻繁進行大規模軍演，並決定｢亞太再平衡政策｣，推動戰略東移目標，要在2020年內將60%的軍事力量轉移至亞太地區，擴大其在該地區的軍事基地建設，進駐先進武器在關島及其他基地。而對中華民國而言，中共劃設東海防空識別區對東海地區安全的衝擊，是非常重要的，中華民國應強化在東海的話語權，並從多邊面向思考對外發展戰略思維的調整。 / Established air defense identification zone's fundamental purpose is to safeguard national aviation security, the basic idea is the "enemy out," is the need to exercise the right of national self-protection is an important means of defense of a sovereign state. President of the Air Force Military Court Criminal Hongbo said: As an early warning concept, air defense identification zone system has national characteristics unilateral, stability, defense, mandatory five aspects. Designation of the relationship between national security and air defense identification zone are closely regardless, although the air defense identification zone is the designation of the country itself, it is in the international community does not have the force of international law, but this area can be said to be a country capable of air defense extending the scope of immediate early warning, so it is a designation of its necessity. And how the designation of their national air defense identification zone will be closely related to the international political influence on the state and between countries. In recent years, the CCP's rapid economic development, has become critical in international affairs, has developed into a potential power countries, Japan, the acquisition of the Diaoyu Island incident occurred in 2012, the strategic balance on the East China Sea, destroyed, Japan and Taiwan in the East China Sea balance, also affected the delineation and the surrounding seaways CCP air defense identification zone maintenance. And in 2013 the CPC established the East China Sea air defense identification zone for international severely affected, especially the situation in the East China Sea region more volatile. CCP released January 15, 2015 flight announcement, to be in the Taiwan Strait designation of a new north-south route, with three new east-west route, this move will have a strong impact on the vicinity of the Taiwan Strait and regional security. And the United States to containment, deterrence and curb the rise of mainland China, in recent years, and Japan, Korea and other countries frequently conduct large-scale military exercises in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, South China Sea, and decided to "rebalance Asia policy" to promote the strategic eastward target to 60% in 2020 year will be transferred to the Asia-Pacific region's military to expand its construction of military bases in the region, advanced weapons stationed in Guam and other bases. The Republic of China, the CPC designation of the impact of the East China Sea air defense identification zone of the East China Sea regional security, it is very important to the Republic of China should strengthen the right to speak in the East China Sea, and think to adjust its foreign strategic thinking from multilateral development-oriented.

O transporte aéreo e a indústria de sistemas de defesa foram setores pioneiros na utilização de sistemas computacionais críticos, incrementando os níveis de automação nas atividades de controle do espaço aéreo. Com o crescimento desses setores, verificado pela expansão dos números de vôos, volumes de cargas e usuários, assim como pela ampliação e diversidade das operações militares, os sistemas de controle têm assumido maior complexidade técnica, introduzindo novos recursos de automação ou facilidades adicionais de apoio para funções exercidas manualmente. Essa situação tem ampliado a dependência dos serviços prestados, relativamente à disponibilidade dos sistemas computacionais. Diretrizes de projeto e procedimentos operacionais são estabelecidos para manter os níveis de segurança nos casos de falha, no entanto a disponibilidade torna-se parâmetro crítico, na medida em que algumas falhas podem afetar a eficiência nominal da prestação dos serviços. Nesse cenário, este trabalho propõe um modelo para avaliação da disponibilidade de sistemas de controle do espaço aéreo, a partir de recursos de análises da teoria de filas. Inicialmente é citado um modelo geral para análise de disponibilidade de data centers. Em seguida, é apresentada uma extensão do modelo geral para análise da disponibilidade em sistemas de controle do espaço aéreo. Para isso, considerou-se a intervenção humana existente nessa atividade, cujas decisões de controle são exercidas por operadores qualificados (controladores), tanto nas atividades inerentes ao serviço de controle, quanto nos casos de degradação, nos quais os operadores ou técnicos de manutenção assumem alguma tarefa de reparo, decorrente da eventual indisponibilidade de funções do sistema. / Due to the growth in airspace utilization, which can be verified both in terms of the expansions in aerial movements, airports and volumes of transported passengers and cargo, as well as in terms of the expansion of military operations demands and diversity, airspace control activities have been increasing their technical complexity, introducing new features into the existent automation systems or creating additional resources for the automation of some functions previously performed by human operators. This situation has increased the dependence on the availability of the computer systems involved in the services provided by control centers. Project directives and operational procedures are established in order to maintain the safety integrity levels of the systems, in case any failure occurs. However, the availability becomes a critical parameter, once failure events can force an undesirable state of degraded operation, jeopardizing the nominal capacity of the services being performed through any controlled airspace. In this scenario, this work presents an availability model for the computer systems used in airspace control centers, based on analysis from queuing theory. A general model is first presented, referencing a case study that describes the use of queuing models to access the availability of generic data centers. Further considerations are introduced to extend this general model in order to propose its application for the specific computer systems used in airspace control centers, where operational control relies on human activities. In this case, system operation involves intensive use of human-machine interfaces (HMI), for the regular control services provided, and additional technical or operational maintenance activities, occasionally imposed to repair a momentary loss of any function of the system.

O transporte aéreo e a indústria de sistemas de defesa foram setores pioneiros na utilização de sistemas computacionais críticos, incrementando os níveis de automação nas atividades de controle do espaço aéreo. Com o crescimento desses setores, verificado pela expansão dos números de vôos, volumes de cargas e usuários, assim como pela ampliação e diversidade das operações militares, os sistemas de controle têm assumido maior complexidade técnica, introduzindo novos recursos de automação ou facilidades adicionais de apoio para funções exercidas manualmente. Essa situação tem ampliado a dependência dos serviços prestados, relativamente à disponibilidade dos sistemas computacionais. Diretrizes de projeto e procedimentos operacionais são estabelecidos para manter os níveis de segurança nos casos de falha, no entanto a disponibilidade torna-se parâmetro crítico, na medida em que algumas falhas podem afetar a eficiência nominal da prestação dos serviços. Nesse cenário, este trabalho propõe um modelo para avaliação da disponibilidade de sistemas de controle do espaço aéreo, a partir de recursos de análises da teoria de filas. Inicialmente é citado um modelo geral para análise de disponibilidade de data centers. Em seguida, é apresentada uma extensão do modelo geral para análise da disponibilidade em sistemas de controle do espaço aéreo. Para isso, considerou-se a intervenção humana existente nessa atividade, cujas decisões de controle são exercidas por operadores qualificados (controladores), tanto nas atividades inerentes ao serviço de controle, quanto nos casos de degradação, nos quais os operadores ou técnicos de manutenção assumem alguma tarefa de reparo, decorrente da eventual indisponibilidade de funções do sistema. / Due to the growth in airspace utilization, which can be verified both in terms of the expansions in aerial movements, airports and volumes of transported passengers and cargo, as well as in terms of the expansion of military operations demands and diversity, airspace control activities have been increasing their technical complexity, introducing new features into the existent automation systems or creating additional resources for the automation of some functions previously performed by human operators. This situation has increased the dependence on the availability of the computer systems involved in the services provided by control centers. Project directives and operational procedures are established in order to maintain the safety integrity levels of the systems, in case any failure occurs. However, the availability becomes a critical parameter, once failure events can force an undesirable state of degraded operation, jeopardizing the nominal capacity of the services being performed through any controlled airspace. In this scenario, this work presents an availability model for the computer systems used in airspace control centers, based on analysis from queuing theory. A general model is first presented, referencing a case study that describes the use of queuing models to access the availability of generic data centers. Further considerations are introduced to extend this general model in order to propose its application for the specific computer systems used in airspace control centers, where operational control relies on human activities. In this case, system operation involves intensive use of human-machine interfaces (HMI), for the regular control services provided, and additional technical or operational maintenance activities, occasionally imposed to repair a momentary loss of any function of the system.

We develop solution methods for the air defense problem of a naval task group in this dissertation. We consider two interdependent problems. The first problem is the optimal allocation of a set of defensive missile systems of a naval task group to a set of attacking air targets. We call this problem the Missile Allocation Problem (MAP). The second problem called the Sector Allocation Problem (SAP) is the determination of a robust air defense formation for a naval task group by locating ships in predefined sectors on the surface. For MAP, we present three different mixed integer programming formulations. MAP by its nature requires real time solution. We propose efficient heuristic solution procedures that satisfy the demanding time requirement of MAP. We also develop mathematical programming models for SAP. Proposed branch and bound solution scheme for SAP yields highly satisfactory solutions. We characterize the interaction between MAP and SAP and develop an integrated solution approach.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Denver, 2006. / "November 2006." Includes bibliographical references (p. 279-291).

Uppsatsen tar sin utgångspunkt i antagandet att det svenska luftvärnet under 2000- talet har haft en begränsad utveckling och att truppslaget inte har följt den internationella trenden med mer högpresterande system. Syftet med uppsatsen är att försöka förklara vad som har drivit det svenska luftvärnets utveckling och vilka faktorer som lett till att luftvärnet idag ser ut som det gör. Graham Allison klassiska verk Essence of Decision har utgjort den teoretiska referensramen som legat till grund för undersökningen. Luftvärnets utveckling har studerats utifrån perspektiven om Rationellt beslutsfattande och Maktutövat beslutsfattande. Resultatet av undersökningen visar att Allisons teorier är gynnsamma för att studera drivkrafter och förklara luftvärnets utveckling. Det maktutövade beslutsfattandet kan till stor del klargöra utvecklingen men har visat sig sakna fullständig förklaringskraft. Perspektivet kan därför med fördel nyttjas för att ge en alternativ bild av utvecklingen men inte ensamt förklara drivkrafterna bakom. Det rationella beslutsfattandet är det som av denna uppsats deklareras ha bäst förklaringskraft. Försvarsmaktens begränsade förmåga att driva utvecklingen av luftvärnet framåt antas ha berott på förändrade målsättningar som skett till följd av skiftande fokus på nationella och internationella insatser. Tilldelning av resurser har stundtals varit knapphändig men har i stora drag följt de övergripande målsättningar Försvarsmakten haft med luftvärnet. / The thesis is based on the assumption that the Swedish Ground Based Air Defense (GBAD) in the 21st century has had a limited development and has not followed the international trend of higher performance systems. The purpose of this thesis is to explain what has propelled the GBAD development and to study the underlying factors that have shaped today´s GBAD. Graham Allison classical work Essence of Decision has provided the theoretical framework that formed the basis for the study. The development of GBAD has been studied from the perspective of Rational Actor model and the Governmental Politics model. The result of the survey shows that Allison's theories are favorable for studying the driving forces and explain GBAD development. The Governmental Politics model almost provides a sufficient explanation but does not provide a comprehensive explanation. The perspective can be beneficially used to give an alternative approach of the development but not alone explain the underlying factors. The Rational Actor model offers the best explanatory power. The Swedish Armed Forces' limited ability to develop GBAD is assumed to have been a result of the changing objectives, which occurred due to an altering focus of national and international missions. Allocation of resources has, at times, been inadequate but has broadly followed the overall objectives the Armed Forces had had with GBAD.

Detta arbete i militärteknik studerar om högeffektpulsad mikrovågsstrålning kan uppnå verkan mot kommersiella UAV. Analysen genomförs på två olika icke-dödliga HPM-vapen. Data hämtas från ett scenario där vapenverkan innebär hög risk för skada på tredje man. En Försvarsmaktsstudie har konstaterat att Luftvärnsbataljon saknar förmåga att verka mot små UAV.Dagsaktuell kunskap har inhämtats om scenariots miljö samt från forskning och industri genom studiebesök. Inhämtad kunskap har möjliggjort en logisk-matematisk parameterstudie på ett scenario med militärtekniskt perspektiv. Analysens slutsatser är att kommersiella UAV innehar låg skyddsnivå, att beslut om insats underlättas i alla miljöer och att en elektronisk sköld i form av HPM-vapen skyddar en stor volym samtidigt. HPM-vapen kan inte som ensamt vapensystem stå för skydd och uppnå säkerställd verkan mot kommersiell UAV. HPM-vapen kan däremot komplettera övriga verkanssystem och göra luftförsvaret starkare genom system av system. HPM-vapen kan bidra till att minska ett befintligt förmågeglapp mot kommersiella UAV. / This paper in military technology discusses whether high power microwaves can affect commercial UAVs. Two non-lethal HPM-weapons are analyzed. The data is collected from a scenario where there is a high risk for collateral damage. A Swedish Armed Forces study stated that the Air Defence Battalion lacks ability to affect small UAVs. The latest knowledge is obtained from the environment in the scenario, from research and from the industry. This knowledge has enabled a logical-mathematical parametric study on the scenario within a military perspective. The result of the study is the assessment that commercial UAVs are assessed to have low protection factor, facilitates decision to act in all environments and provides an electronic shield protection of a large surface at the same time. HPM-weapons can´t stand as a single system for protection against commercial UAVs and achieve guaranteed effect. However, HPM-weapons can complement other weapon systems and thus make the air defense stronger through systems of systems. HPM-weapons can reduce the capability deficiency against commercial UAVs.