Virtually all theories of visual word recognition assume (typically implicitly) that when a pathway is used, processing within that pathway always unfolds in the same way. This view is challenged by the observation that simple variations in list composition are associated with qualitative changes in performance. The present experiments demonstrate that when reading aloud, the joint effects of stimulus quality and word frequency on RT are driven by the presence/absence of nonwords in the list. Interacting effects of these factors are seen when only words appear in the experiment whereas additive effects are seen when words and nonwords are randomly intermixed. One way to explain these and other data appeals to the distinction between cascaded processing (or interactive-activation) on the one hand versus a thresholded mode of processing on the other, with contextual factors determining which mode of processing dominates.

Virtually all theories of visual word recognition assume (typically implicitly) that when a pathway is used, processing within that pathway always unfolds in the same way. This view is challenged by the observation that simple variations in list composition are associated with qualitative changes in performance. The present experiments demonstrate that when reading aloud, the joint effects of stimulus quality and word frequency on RT are driven by the presence/absence of nonwords in the list. Interacting effects of these factors are seen when only words appear in the experiment whereas additive effects are seen when words and nonwords are randomly intermixed. One way to explain these and other data appeals to the distinction between cascaded processing (or interactive-activation) on the one hand versus a thresholded mode of processing on the other, with contextual factors determining which mode of processing dominates.

In a series of five experiments I examined whether intention (as operationalized by task set) affects the processes involved in reading. The Task Set paradigm (Besner & Care, 2003) was used in all experiments. On each trial subjects were cued to perform one of two tasks on each trial, on half the trials the cue appeared before the target (750 SOA) and on the other half of trials the cue appeared at the same time as the target (0 SOA). In Experiment 1, nonword letter length and complexity did not interact with SOA when reading aloud. This suggests that target processing awaits the implementation of a task set. In Experiment 2 and 3, when only words were presented, word frequency and SOA interacted such that there was a smaller effect of word frequency at the 0 SOA relative to the 750 SOA. This suggests that lexical processing can go on in parallel with cue decoding. However, in Experiment 4, when words and nonwords were combined there was no interaction between word frequency and SOA. Participants appear to now wait to read the target word until the cue is processed, therefore reading aloud words can be affected by intention. Finally, in Experiment 5, when the task was to generate an antonym (instead of reading aloud), word frequency was additive with SOA. This suggests that at least some aspect of semantic processing (when generating an antonym) is delayed until cue processing is complete. These results, considered alongside results from the Psychological Refractory Period paradigm are taken to imply that sublexical processing uses both attention and intention. Critically, lexical and semantic processing may not require a form of attention, but they can be affected by intention. This runs contrary to the received view that reading aloud is automatic in the sense that it does not require intention, thus a radical change in how we think about the process of reading aloud is needed.

Participants read aloud a set of nonword letter strings, one at a time that varied in the number of letters. The standard result was observed in two experiments; the time to begin reading aloud increased as letter length increases. This result is standardly understood as reflecting the operation of a serial, left to right translation of graphemes into phonemes. The novel result is that the effect of letter length is statistically eliminated for nonwords that have been repeated a small number of times. This elimination suggests that these nonwords are no longer always being read aloud via a serial left to right sublexical process. Instead, the data are taken as evidence that new orthographic and phonological lexical entries have been created for these nonwords, and that they are now read at least sometimes by recourse to the lexical route. Experiment 2 replicates the interaction between nonword letter length and repetition observed in Experiment 1 and also demonstrates that this interaction is not seen when subjects merely classify the string as appearing in upper or lower case. Implications for existing dual route models of reading aloud and Share???s self-teaching hypothesis are discussed.

In a series of five experiments I examined whether intention (as operationalized by task set) affects the processes involved in reading. The Task Set paradigm (Besner & Care, 2003) was used in all experiments. On each trial subjects were cued to perform one of two tasks on each trial, on half the trials the cue appeared before the target (750 SOA) and on the other half of trials the cue appeared at the same time as the target (0 SOA). In Experiment 1, nonword letter length and complexity did not interact with SOA when reading aloud. This suggests that target processing awaits the implementation of a task set. In Experiment 2 and 3, when only words were presented, word frequency and SOA interacted such that there was a smaller effect of word frequency at the 0 SOA relative to the 750 SOA. This suggests that lexical processing can go on in parallel with cue decoding. However, in Experiment 4, when words and nonwords were combined there was no interaction between word frequency and SOA. Participants appear to now wait to read the target word until the cue is processed, therefore reading aloud words can be affected by intention. Finally, in Experiment 5, when the task was to generate an antonym (instead of reading aloud), word frequency was additive with SOA. This suggests that at least some aspect of semantic processing (when generating an antonym) is delayed until cue processing is complete. These results, considered alongside results from the Psychological Refractory Period paradigm are taken to imply that sublexical processing uses both attention and intention. Critically, lexical and semantic processing may not require a form of attention, but they can be affected by intention. This runs contrary to the received view that reading aloud is automatic in the sense that it does not require intention, thus a radical change in how we think about the process of reading aloud is needed.

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Self-report questionnaires are frequently used in health fields; however, subjective interpretation is often ignored. One way of assessing this is using techniques derived from cognitive interviewing. Of these, ‘think-aloud’, in which respondents speak their thoughts aloud as they complete a questionnaire, is the original paradigm. The thesis focusses on the use of ‘think-aloud’ methodology in the evaluation of questionnaires already in use in the health domain. The current thesis has been prepared in the format of scientific papers. Paper 1 is a systematic review (23 studies) of the appropriateness and usefulness of think-aloud techniques for evaluating health-related questionnaires. A descriptive account is provided of the aims of the studies reviewed; the justification for using think-aloud; populations studied; and methodology; an evaluative account depicts the usefulness of the think-aloud method in addressing researchers’ aims. Think-aloud was successfully used to address researchers’ aims and was effective at elucidating problems with questionnaires. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed, and recommendations made for future research. Paper 2 is a cross-sectional observational study using think-aloud methods to examine the way in which people with End Stage Renal Disease (N=25) interpret and respond to the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). All questions were found to be problematic to some extent and reappraisal questions yielded the most problems. A tendency to deny or minimise negative emotions and present a positive self-image was also noted. Implications are discussed for use of the ERQ and replication with further samples suggested. Paper 3 is a critical appraisal of the above papers and provides personal reflections on the research process as a whole. The current thesis was a transition from a different study; amended due to time constraints. The journey is also outlined from this original study to the present thesis. Strengths and limitations are considered as well as areas for improvement and future research.

As most classroom teachers primarily select narrative texts for interactive read-alouds, there is a lack of research that explores interactive read-alouds of expository texts. To address the call for greater equity between narrative and expository texts in curriculum, the purpose of this study was to examine how a seventh-grade English language arts teacher prepared for and engaged students in interactive read-alouds using expository texts. Using a self-study methodology, data were collected in three ways: field notes that captured preparation, video recordings that captured the read-alouds, and post read-aloud reflections that captured impressions following the read-alouds. Findings are organized into two categories—planning read-alouds and engaging in read-alouds. Findings from the first category indicate that the importance of finding enjoyment in expository texts, the balance between entertainer and educator, and charting possible courses are significant parts of preparation for interactive read-alouds. Findings from the second category show that the importance of tapping in and building schemas, cultivating aesthetic experiences in efferent spaces, and engaging as thinkers and knowers are important factors for engaging adolescent readers in expository texts. Though this study highlights only one English Language Arts teacher’s experience preparing for and presenting read-alouds with expository texts, this research suggests that others may wish to embrace the messiness of planning to expand their read-aloud practices, and that read-alouds with expository texts may be particularly beneficial to adolescents because of their unique developmental needs.

Thesis advisor: Marina Vasilyeva / Book-reading is a common practice among teachers in developed countries; yet, little research has been done on the nature and the role of this activity in predicting children's language outcomes in developing countries with languages other than English. The present study sought to address this gap by examining preschool teachers' speech characteristics and the read-aloud strategies used in Chilean schools serving Spanish-speaking children from low-income families. The investigation expanded previously used methodology by providing a more in-depth analysis of the teachers' strategies used during book reading in preschool classrooms. It examined whether the variability in read-aloud strategies and speech characteristics predicted preschoolers' vocabulary and comprehension growth over a school year. This study was exploratory in nature and it used available Chilean Prekindergarten data from Un Buen Comienzo intervention project. As part of the project, teachers were randomly assigned to either intervention or control group, with teachers in the intervention group participating in workshops designed to improve their instructional methods. Teachers' speech characteristics and read-aloud strategies were coded based on videotaped records of reading activities in classrooms. A final list of 24 read-aloud strategy codes emerged; High and Low level composites were created to reflect different degrees of cognitive stimulation. Descriptive analysis demonstrated substantial variability in the use of read-aloud strategies and speech characteristics across teachers. Teachers in the intervention group, on average, used a greater number of diverse read-aloud strategies than teachers in the control group. Results from Hierarchical Linear Modeling analysis revealed a significant difference in the relation between the use of Read-aloud strategies and the growth of children's vocabulary as a function of condition (intervention vs. control group). Specifically, for the teachers in the intervention group, High-level read-aloud strategies were found to be a statistically significant predictor of children's vocabulary growth scores. In contrast, for teachers in the control group, this relation was not significant. Low-level read-aloud strategies and speech characteristics were not significantly related to children's language outcomes in either intervention or control group. The implications of the findings for further research on classroom linguistic environment and for teaching practices in preschool classrooms are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2014. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental, and Educational Psychology.

Syftet med studien är att bidra med kunskaper om hur analog och digital högläsning används i förskolans verksamhet.. Den teoretiska utgångspunkten i examensarbetet är sociokulturellt perspektiv. För att genomföra studien valdes semistrukturerade intervjuer som metod där åtta pedagoger från en kommun i Mellansverige deltog. Studiens resultat visar att högläsning är en vanligt förekommande aktivitet och pedagogerna använder sig av både analog och digital högläsning i förskolans verksamhet. De båda metoderna kan inte likställas utan fyller olika syften och användningsområden i förskolans verksamhet. Pedagogerna anser att den analoga högläsningen bidrar till en mer följsam och inlevelserik högläsning som inkluderar fler stimulerande boksamtal och bidrar till en större delaktighet i barngruppen. Pedagogerna anser att den digitala högläsningen erbjuder ett stort utbud av inlästa, bläddringsbara e-böcker som är en tillgång i förskolan vid tillfällen då personalen själva inte har möjlighet att genomföra högläsningen eller vid tillfällen av stora barngrupper. Den digitala högläsningen används även för modersmålsutveckling hos flerspråkiga barn, då bilderboksapplikationerna erbjuder många böcker inlästa på olika språk. Det högläsningsmetoderna har gemensamt är att de skapar mångsidiga förutsättningar som syftar till att stimulera barnens språkliga utveckling samt väcka deras egna läsintresse genom att de bidrar till en stimulerande och språkrik miljö på förskolorna. / The purpose of the study is to contribute with knowledge about how analogueand digital reading aloud is used in the preschool ́s operations. The theoreticalstarting point in the degree project in a socio-cultural perspective. To carry outthe study, semi-structured interviews were chosen as the method in which eighteducators from a municipality in Central Sweden participated. The results ofthe study show that read aloud is a common activity and the pedagogues useboth analogue and digital read aloud in the activities of the preschool. The twomethods cannot be equated but serve different purposes and areas of use in thepreschool ́s operations. The educators believe that the analogue read aloudcontributes to a more compliant and empathetic read aloud that includes morestimulating book conversations and contributes to greater participations in thechildren ́s group. The pedagogues believe that the digital read aloud offers alarge selection of loaded, browsable e-books which are an asset in thepreschool on occasions when staff themselves do not have the opportunity tocarry out the reading aloud or on occasions of large groups of children. Thedigital read aloud is also used for mother tongue development in multilingualchildren, as the picture book applications offer many books read in differentlanguages. What the read aloud methods have in common is that they createversatile conditions that aim to stimulate the children linguistic developmentand awaken their own interest in reading by the fact that they contributes to astimulating and language-rich environment at the preschools.