Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is an adult-onset progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes degeneration in both upper and lower motor neurons. ALS progresses relentlessly after the onset of the disease, with most patients die within 3-5 years of diagnosis, largely due to respiratory failure. Since SOD1 became the first gene whose mutations were associated with ALS in 1993, more than 17 ALS causative genes have been identified. Among them, TAR DNA-binding protein (TARDBP) lies in the central of ALS pathology mechanism study, because TDP43 proteinopathy is observed not only in familial ALS cases carrying TARDBP mutations, but also in most of the sporadic ALS cases, which account for 90% of the whole ALS population. Several TDP43 overexpression mouse models have been successfully generated to study the gain-of-toxicity mechanism of TDP43 in ALS development, while the investigation of loss-of-function mechanism which could also contribute to ALS still awaits a proper mouse model. The major difficulty in generating TARDBP knock out mouse model lies in the fact that TARDBP is a development essential gene and complete depletion of TDP43 function causes embryonic lethality. In chapter I, I reviewed the recent advances in ALS study. Emphasis was given to ALS mouse models, especially TARDBP ALS mouse model. In Chapter II, I made a Tet-responsive construct that contains mCherry, a fluorescent protein, as an indicator for the expression of the artificial miRNA (amiTDP) residing in the 3’UTR of mCherry and targeting TARDBP. The construct was tested in NSC34 cells and TRE-mCherry-amiTDP43 transgenic mouse was generated with this construct. Crossing TRE-mCherry-amiTDP43 mouse with mPrp-tTA mouse, mCherry expression was successfully induced in mouse forebrain and cerebellum, but not in other tissues including spinal cord. By quantitative real-time PCR, amiTDP43 expression was confirmed to be coupled with mCherry expression. Fluorescent immunostaining revealed that mCherry was expressed in neurons, but not in astrocytes or microglia cells, and that in mCherry positive cells, TDP43 was significantly knocked down. Results from Nissl staining and GFAP immunostaining suggested that decrease of TDP43 in forebrain neuron only was not sufficient to cause neurodegeneration and neuron loss. In chapter III, I investigated the function of Armadillo Containing Protein 4 (ARMC4), which was originally considered ALS causative gene. Our study of the function of CG5155, the possible homolog of ARMC4 in Drosophila, indicated that CG5155 is a male fertility gene that is involved in spermatogenesis. Therefore, we have named this gene Gudu. The transcript of Gudu is highly enriched in adult testes. Knockdown of Gudu by a ubiquitous driver leads to defects in the formation of the individualization complex that is required for spermatid maturation, thereby impairing spermatogenesis. Furthermore, testis-specific knockdown of Gudu by crossing the RNAi lines with Bam-Gal4 driver is sufficient to cause the infertility and defective spermatogenesis. Since Gudu is highly homologous to vertebrate ARMC4, also an Armadillo-repeat-containing protein enriched in testes, our results suggest that Gudu and ARMC4 is a subfamily of Armadillo-repeat containing proteins with an evolutionarily conserved function in spermatogenesis.

La sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA) est une maladie neurodégénérative incurable partageant des mécanismes pathogéniques avec la démence frontotemporale (DFT). Elle est caractérisée par la dégénérescence sélective des neurones moteurs de la moelle épinière et du cerveau. Depuis les 25 dernières années, plus de 20 gènes ont été associés avec ces maladies, incluant FUS, C9ORF72 et TARDBP. Cependant, les liens entre la pathologie, le stade de la maladie et les mécanismes cellulaires demeurent incertains, mais semblent être multifactoriels. Bien que la SLA soit principalement considérée comme une maladie affectant le système nerveux, plusieurs d’observations suggèrent que des signaux périphériques, incluant ceux du tractus gastro-intestinal et de son microbiome, pourraient influencer la progression de la maladie. Récemment, de nouvelles études font état de perturbations du microbiome, appelé dysbiose, de la bioénergétique mitochondriale et de la composition lipidiques dans la SLA. Toutefois, il y a un manque considérable de compréhension de l’effet de ces perturbations sur la pathogenèse de la SLA. Une dysbiose a également été identifiée dans d’autres maladies neurodégénératives, telles que la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) et la maladie d’Huntington (MH). En utilisant l’organisme modèle Caenorhabditis elegans, nous avons identifié une souche probiotique, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus HA-114, ayant des propriétés neuroprotectives dans différents modèles de SLA et de MH. Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous avons démontrés que la neuroprotection conférée par L. rhamnosus HA-114 est unique par rapport aux autres souches de L. rhamnosus et réside dans son contenu en acide gras. Ces effets bénéfiques requièrent acdh-1/ACADSB, kat-1/ACAT1 and elo-6/ELOVL3/6, gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme des lipides et la β-oxydation mitochondriale. De plus, HA-114 retarde l’apparition des symptômes et réduit la neurodégénérescence chez la souris SOD1G93A. Nos résultats suggèrent que des perturbations du métabolisme des lipides contribuent à la neurodégénérescence et que HA-114 restaure l’homéostasie lipidique et énergétique via la β-oxydation mitochondriale. Dans la seconde partie de cette thèse, nous avons utilisé le C. elegans et avons caractérisé l’orthologue de CHCHD10, har-1, dans plusieurs essais afin d’étudier son implication dans la SLA et la DFT. CHCHD10 code pour une protéine impliquée dans la maintenance de la morphologie mitochondriale et la phosphorylation oxydative. Des mutations dans ce gène ont récemment été liées à la SLA. Nous avons caractérisé deux allèles distincts : une délétion de 260 pb (gk3124) et une mutation ponctuelle (ad2155). Les mutants har-1(gk3124) et har-1(ad2155) développent une paralysie, une dégénérescence des neurones GABAergiques et une altération de la santé mitochondriale. Le pioglitazone et le 2,4-thiazolidinedione, deux composés régulant la santé mitochondriale, restaurent plusieurs phénotypes associés à la SLA chez les mutants har-1. De plus, L. rhamnosus HA-114 a également des effets similaires sur ces souches. Ces résultats semblent confirmer un lien entre le microbiome et la SLA et pourraient ouvrir la voie à de futures thérapies via la modulation de l’environnement intestinal. De plus, découvrir les mécanismes impliqués dans cette neuroprotection permettrait sans doute la découverte de nouveaux gènes et de biomolécules actives ayant la capacité de moduler la neurodégénérescence, ouvrant la voie à l’utilisation de nouveaux médicaments. / Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an incurable neurodegenerative disease sharing pathological pathways with frontotemporal dementia (FTD). It is characterized by the selective degeneration of lower and upper motor neurons in the spinal cord and cerebral cortex. Over the last 25 years, more than 20 genes have been associated with these diseases, including FUS, C9ORF72 and TARDBP. Despite over a century of medical investigation, the links between pathology, disease stage and cellular mechanisms are still unclear, but may be multifactorial involving unresolved gene-environment interactions. While ALS is primarily considered a central nervous system disease, emerging evidence suggests that peripheral signals, including those from the gastrointestinal tract and gut microbiota, may be involved in ALS progression. Over the last year, new evidence showed perturbations in microbiota (called dysbiosis), mitochondrial bioenergetics, and in lipid composition in ALS. However, there is a considerable lack of understanding of the effect of these perturbations in ALS pathogenesis. Interestingly, dysbiosis has also been linked to other neurological conditions like Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Huntington’s disease (HD). Using the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, we discovered a probiotic bacterial strain, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus HA-114, with neuroprotective properties in models of ALS and HD. In the first part of this thesis, we demonstrated that neuroprotection from L. rhamnosus HA-114 is unique from other L. rhamnosus strains, and resides in its fatty acid content. Neuroprotection by L. rhamnosus HA-114 requires acdh-1/ACADSB, kat-1/ACAT1 and elo-6/ELOVL3/6, which are key fatty acid metabolism and mitochondrial β-oxidation genes. Moreover, L. rhamnosus HA-114 delayed disease onset and suppressed motor neuron degeneration in an aggressive mouse model of ALS. Our data suggest that disrupted lipid metabolism contributes to neurodegeneration and that dietary intervention with L. rhamnosus HA-114 restores lipid homeostasis and energy balance through mitochondrial β-oxidation. In the second part of this thesis, we used C. elegans and characterized the CHCHD10 orthologue har-1, in a number of behavioral assays, to learn more about the biological role of this gene and its implication in ALS-FTD pathogenesis. CHCHD10 is a widely expressed gene coding for a mitochondrial protein with a potential role in cristae morphology maintenance and/or oxidative phosphorylation with mutations recently associated with ALS. We characterized two distinct alleles: a deletion of 260 bp (gk3124) and a point mutation (ad2155). Both har-1 (gk3124) and har-1 (ad2155) worms display age-dependent motility defects leading to paralysis, degeneration of GABAergic neurons and altered mitochondrial health. The small molecules, pioglitazone and 2,4-thiazolidinedione, with known neuroprotective activity, and also shown to regulate mitochondrial health, suppressed several har-1 phenotypes. Moreover, dietary supplementation of L. rhamnosus HA-114 improved several ALS-related phenotypes in these har-1 mutants. These findings may confirm a link between microbiota and ALS and can lead to future therapies, through the modulation of the intestinal environment. L. rhamnosus HA-114 is suitable for human consumption opening the possibility of modifying disease progression by dietary intervention. Furthermore, uncovering the complete neuroprotection pathway may give us insights into new genes and bioactive molecules able to modulate neurodegeneration, thus opening the door to new therapeutic approaches.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第19174号 / 医博第4016号 / 新制||医||1010(附属図書館) / 32166 / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 髙橋 淳, 教授 村井 俊哉, 教授 渡邉 大 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that causes progressive autonomy loss and need for care. This does not only affect patients themselves, but also the patients’ informal caregivers (CGs) in their health, personal and professional lives. The big efforts of this multi-center study were not only to evaluate the caregivers’ burden and to identify its predictors, but it also should provide a specific understanding of the needs of ALS patients’ CGs and fill the gap of knowledge on their personal and work lives. Using standardized questionnaires, primary data from patients and their main informal CGs (n = 249) were collected. Patients’ functional status and disease severity were evaluated using the Barthel Index, the revised Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Functional Rating Scale (ALSFRS-R) and the King’s Stages for ALS. The caregivers’ burden was recorded by the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI). Comorbid anxiety and depression of caregivers were assessed by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Additionally, the EuroQol Five Dimension Five Level Scale evaluated their health-related quality of life. The caregivers’ burden was high (mean ZBI = 26/88, 0 = no burden, ≥24 = highly burdened) and correlated with patients’ functional status (rp = −0.555, p < 0.001, n = 242). It was influenced by the CGs’ own mental health issues due to caregiving (+11.36, 95% CI [6.84; 15.87], p < 0.001), patients’ wheelchair dependency (+9.30, 95% CI [5.94; 12.66], p < 0.001) and was interrelated with the CGs’ depression (rp = 0.627, p < 0.001, n = 234), anxiety (rp = 0.550, p < 0.001, n = 234), and poorer physical condition (rp = −0.362, p < 0.001, n = 237). Moreover, female CGs showed symptoms of anxiety more often, which also correlated with the patients’ impairment in daily routine (rs = −0.280, p < 0.001, n = 169). As increasing disease severity, along with decreasing autonomy, was the main predictor of caregiver burden and showed to create relevant (negative) implications on CGs’ lives, patient care and supportive therapies should address this issue. Moreover, in order to preserve the mental and physical health of the CGs, new concepts of care have to focus on both, on not only patients but also their CGs and gender-associated specific issues. As caregiving in ALS also significantly influences the socioeconomic status by restrictions in CGs’ work lives and income, and the main reported needs being lack of psychological support and a high bureaucracy, the situation of CGs needs more attention. Apart from their own multi-disciplinary medical and psychological care, more support in care and patient management issues is required.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, with poor prognosis and no cure. Substantial evidence implicates inflammation and associated oxidative stress as a potential mechanism for ALS, especially in patients carrying the SOD1 mutation and, therefore, lacking anti-oxidant defense. The brain is particularly vulnerable to oxidation due to the abundance of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which can give rise to several oxidized metabolites. Accumulation of a DHA peroxidation product, CarboxyEthylPyrrole (CEP) is dependent on activated inflammatory cells and myeloperoxidase (MPO), and thus marks areas of inflammation-associated oxidative stress. At the same time, generation of an alternative inactive DHA peroxidation product, ethylpyrrole, does not require cell activation and MPO activity. While absent in normal brain tissues, CEP is accumulated in the central nervous system (CNS) of ALS patients, reaching particularly high levels in individuals carrying a SOD1 mutation. ALS brains are characterized by high levels of MPO and lowered anti-oxidant activity (due to the SOD1 mutation), thereby aiding CEP generation and accumulation. Due to DHA oxidation within the membranes, CEP marks cells with the highest oxidative damage. In all ALS cases CEP is present in nearly all astrocytes and microglia, however, only in individuals carrying a SOD1 mutation CEP marks >90% of neurons, thereby emphasizing an importance of CEP accumulation as a potential hallmark of oxidative damage in neurodegenerative diseases.

<p> G93A SODI mice (G93A mice) are a transgenic model over-expressing a mutant human Cu/Zn-SOD gene, and are a model for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a predominantly motor neurodegenerative disease. Hippocampal neurogenesis in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of dentate gyms (DG) occurs throughout the life. It is regulated by many pathological and physiological processes. There is controversy with respect to the basal level of hippocampal neurogenesis and its response to exercise in neurodegenerative diseases and their mouse models. Little information regarding hippocampal neurogenesis is available in G93A mice. The present study was designed to study the impact of treadmill exercise and sex differences on hippocampal neurogenesis in this model. In addition, potential molecular mechanisms regulating hippocampal neurogenesis including growth factors (BDNF and IGFl) and oxidative stress (SOD2, catalase, 8-0Hdg, and 3-NT) were also addressed in the study. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was used to label newly generated cells. G93A and wild type (WT) mice were subjected to treadmill exercise (EX) or a sedentary (SEO) lifestyle. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect BrdU labeled newly proliferating cells, surviving cells, and their phenotype, as well as for determination of oxidative stress. BDNF and IGFl mRNA expression was assessed by in situ hybridization. Results showed that (1) G93A mice had an elevated basal level of hippocampal neurogenesis for both cell survival and neuronal differentiation, a growth factor (BDNF mRNA), and an oxidative stress marker (NT), as compared to wild type sedentary mice. (2) Treadmill running did not show any further effect on hippocampal neurogenesis, growth factors, oxidative stress, and antioxidant enzymes in G93A mice, while treadmill running promoted hippocampal neurogenes1s and expression of the growth factor (BDNF mRNA), and lowered oxidative stress (8-0Hdg) in WT mice. (3) There also were sex differences in hippocampal neurogenesis in G93A mice, whereby male G93A mice had a significant higher level of cell proliferation but a lower level of survival than female G93A mice. (4) The DG BDNF mRNA was associated with cell survival and neuronal differentiation in sedentary G93A mice, suggesting that BDNF is associated with a higher basal level of hippocampal neurogenesis in G93A mice. We conclude that G93A mice are more permissive in the context of hippocampal neurogenesis, which is associated with elevated DG BDNF mRNA expression. Running did not have impact on hippocampal neurogenesis and BDNF mRNA expression in G93A mice, probably due to a 'ceiling effect' of the already heightened basal levels of hippocampal neurogenesis and BDNF mRNA in this model. In addition, sex differences also affect hippocampal neurogenes1s, but the further study is needed to clarify the underlying molecular mechanisms. </p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

No description available.

La sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA) est une pathologie complexe multifactorielle dont les mécanismes de dégénérescence des motoneurones et de propagation rapide au sein du système nerveux sont encore incertains. Par l’utilisation du nématode Caenorhabditis elegans, nous avons pu investiguer génétiquement et pharmacologiquement certains facteurs entrant en jeu dans la toxicité de TDP-43 et FUS. Des mutations dominantes dans ces protéines liant l’ADN et l’ARN, structurellement et fonctionnellement proches, sont des causes de SLA familiales. Nous avons, par le passé, construit un modèle de ver transgénique possédant le gène TARDBP ou FUS codant respectivement pour les protéines humaines TDP-43 ou FUS, sous le contrôle d’un promoteur exprimé seulement dans les neurones GABAergiques. Uniquement lorsque les gènes TARDBP ou FUS sont mutés, des symptômes relatifs à la SLA apparaissent au cours du temps, à savoir une paralysie progressive et une neurodégénérescence des motoneurones GABAergiques. Nous avons voulu connaître le rôle que pouvait jouer le système immunitaire, dont des évidences croissantes montrent une implication dans la SLA, dans la protéotoxicité liée à ces protéines dans nos modèles de ver. Dans un premier temps, nous avons évalué la motricité des vers en milieu solide et en milieu liquide, et grâce à des vers transgéniques exprimant la GFP dans les neurones GABAergiques, nous avons pu quantifier la neurodégénérescence. Nos résultats soulignent un rôle prévalent de l’orthologue de la protéine du système immunitaire innée Sarm1 chez le ver, TIR-1, ainsi que les kinases en aval dans la pathologie. Nous avons pu, de surcroît, utiliser le marqueur NLP-29 dont le promoteur lié à la GFP nous indique l’activation de la voie Sarm1 dans l’ensemble du ver et non seulement dans les neurones. De manière intéressante, l’activation de ces protéines se produit entre autres dans des cellules non-neuronales de manière paracrine suggérant qu’un signal de danger opère extracellulairement et vraisemblablement à travers un récepteur membranaire. Ces dernières années, un nombre important d’études met en lumière le rôle proéminent des microARNs dans des maladies telle que la SLA. Classiquement vus comme des régulateurs de l’expression post-transcriptionnelle, ce qui en font notamment des outils antiviraux puissants, ils peuvent agir à d’autres niveaux et notamment comme ligands de récepteurs Toll-like (TLRs), eux aussi impliqués dans la SLA. iv Outre le potentiel biomarqueur de ces petites molécules, nous avons investigué leur rôle dans la neurodégénérescence observée dans la SLA. Ainsi, dans une deuxième partie d’étude, nous avons utilisé des mutants pour différentes protéines impliquées dans la biogénèse des microARNs et trouvé qu’elles étaient partie intégrante du processus de paralysie et de dégénérescence des vers TDP-43A315T. Plus encore, le microARN let-7 pourrait être une molécule signal transitant entre les neurones et les cellules avoisinantes. Enfin, des analyses bio-statistiques prédisent la possibilité que let-7 se lie au récepteur TOL-1, l’unique orthologue des TLRs chez C. elegans. Les propriétés des microARNs en font en effet des cibles de choix dans la recherche de nouveaux acteurs dans la SLA et de potentielles cibles thérapeutiques. / Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a complex multifactorial pathology characterized by the progressive spread of motor neuron degeneration. Unfortunalety, the underlying disease mechanisms remain unclear. By using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we were able to investigate genetically and pharmacologically some factors involved in TDP-43 or FUS proteotoxicity. Dominant mutations in these structurally and functionally similar DNA/RNA binding proteins, are causative for familial ALS. We have constructed transgenic C. elegans models expressing human TARDBP or FUS genes - encoding respectively TDP-43 and FUS - only in GABAergic motor neurons. In these transgenics animals, the expression of mutant TARDBP or FUS alleles results in early the motor deficits leading to age-dependent paralysis accompanied by neuronal protein aggregation. Using transgenic strain expressing GFP in GABAeric neurons, we found an increased rate of neurodegeneration in TDP-43 and FUS mutants. With these models we investigated the potential role of the innate immune system as a modifier of these phenotypes. Our results highlight a prevalent role for the worm’s innate immune system, and specifically the TIR-1/Sarm1 pathway and associated downstream kinases in neurodegeneration. We used GFP fluorescence linked to NLP-29 promoter to indicate Sarm1 pathway activation in the entire worm. Interestingly, activation of the TIR-1/Sarm1 pathway occurs in a paracrine manner in non-neuronal cells, suggesting that a danger signal operates extracellularly likely through a membrane receptor. In a past few years, a number of studies have highlighted the prominent role of microRNAs in diseases such as ALS. Traditionally seen as post-transcriptional regulators, what makes them powerful antiviral tools is that they can act at other levels and in particular as Toll-like receptors (TLRs) ligands, also involved in ALS. In addition to the biomarker potential of these small molecules, we investigated their role in the neurodegeneration observed in ALS. As a result, in the a second section of this study, we used worms mutant for several proteins involved in the biogenesis of microRNAs and found that they were involved in the process of TDP-43A315T-independent paralysis and neurodegeneration. Moreover, the microRNA let-7 seems to be a signal molecule involved in the non-cell autonomous trans-neuronal and trans-cellular spread of motor neuron degeneration. Finally, bio-statistical analyzes predict the possibility that let-7 binds to the vi TOL-1 receptor, the single ortholog of TLRs in C. elegans. Thus microRNAs may be prime targets for ALS therapeutic intervention.

Background: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a late-onset progressive neurodegenerative disorder. ALS has been traditionally believed to be primarily a motor neuron disease. However, accumulating data indicate that loss of contact between the axons and the muscle fibres occurs early; long before the death of motor neurons and that muscle fibres may initiate motor neuron degeneration. Thus, the view of ALS is changing focus from motor neurons alone to also include the muscle fibres and the neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). While skeletal muscles are affected in ALS, oculomotor disturbances are not dominant features of this disease and extraocular muscles (EOMs) are far less affected than limb muscles. Why oculomotor neurons and EOMs are capable to be more resistant in the pathogenetic process of ALS is still unknown. The overall goal of this thesis is to explore the pathophysiology of ALS from a muscle perspective and in particular study the expression and distribution of key neurotrophic factors (NTFs) and Wnt proteins in EOMs and limb muscles from ALS donors and from SOD1G93A transgenic mice. Comparisons were made with age-matched controls to distinguish between changes related to ALS and to ageing. Results: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and neurotrophin-4/5 (NT-4) were present in EOMs and limb muscles at both mRNA and protein levels in control mice. The mRNA levels of BDNF, NT-3 and NT-4 were significantly lower in EOMs than in limb muscles of early and/or late control mice, indicating an intrinsic difference in NTFs expression between EOMs and limb muscles. qRT-PCR analysis showed significantly upregulated mRNA levels of NT-3 and GDNF in EOMs but significantly downregulated mRNA levels of NT-4 in limb muscles from SOD1G93A transgenic mice at early stage. The NTFs were detected immunohistochemically in NMJs, nerve axons and muscle fibres. The expression of BDNF, GDNF and NT-4 on NMJs of limb muscles, but not of EOMs, was significantly decreased in terminal stage ALS animals as compared to the limb muscles of the age-matched controls. In contrast, NTFs expression in intramuscular nerve axons did not present significant changes in either muscle group of early or late ALS mice. NTFs, especially BDNF and NT-4 were upregulated in some small-sized muscle fibres in limb muscles of late stage ALS mice. All the four Wnt isoforms, Wnt1, Wnt3a, Wnt5a and Wnt7a were detected in most axon profiles in all human EOMs with ALS, whereas significantly fewer axon profiles were positive in the human limb muscles except for Wnt5a. Similar differential patterns were found in myofibres, except for Wnt7a, where its expression was elevated within sarcolemma of limb muscle fibres. β-catenin, a marker of the canonical Wnt pathway was activated in a subset of myofibres in the EOMs and limb muscle in all ALS patients. In the SOD1G93A mouse, all four Wnt isoforms were significantly decreased in the NMJs at the terminal stage compared to age matched controls. Conclusions: There were clear differences in NTF and Wnt expression patterns between EOM and limb muscle, suggesting that they may play a role in the distinct susceptibility of these two muscle groups to ALS. In particular, the early upregulation of GDNF and NT-3 in the EOMs might play a role in the preservation of the EOMs in ALS. Further studies are needed to determine whether these proteins and the pathways they control may be have a future potential as protecting agents for other muscles.

La sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA) est la maladie des neurones moteurs la plus fréquente, affectant 4-6 individus par 100,000 habitants à l’échelle mondiale. La maladie se caractérise par une faiblesse et une atrophie musculaire suite à la dégénérescence des neurones du cortex moteur, tronc cérébral et moelle épinière. Les personnes atteintes développent les premiers symptômes à l’âge adulte et la maladie progresse sur une période de trois à cinq ans. Il a été répertorié qu’environ 10% des patients ont une histoire familiale de SLA; 90% des gens affectés le sont donc de façon sporadique. La découverte il y a 19 ans de mutations dans le gène zinc/copper superoxide dismutase (SOD1), présentes dans 15-20% des cas familiaux de SLA et environ 2% du total des individus affectés, a été l’événement déclencheur pour la découverte de variations génétiques responsables de la maladie. La recherche sur la génétique de la SLA a connu une progression rapide ces quatre dernières années avec l’identification de mutations dans de nouveaux gènes. Toutefois, même si certains de ces gènes ont été démontrés comme réellement liés à la maladie, la contribution d’autres gènes demeure incertaine puisque les résultats publiés de ceux-ci n’ont pas, à ce jour, été répliqués. Une portion substantielle de cas reste cependant à être génétiquement expliquée, et aucun traitement à ce jour n’a été démontré comme étant efficace pour remédier, atténuer ou prévenir la maladie. Le but du projet de recherche de doctorat était d’identifier de nouveaux gènes mutés dans la SLA, tout en évaluant la contribution de gènes nouvellement identifiés chez une importante cohorte multiethnique de cas familiaux et sporadiques. Les résultats présentés sont organisés en trois sections différentes. Dans un premier temps, la contribution de mutations présentes dans le gène FUS est évaluée chez les patients familiaux, sporadiques et juvéniles de SLA. Précisément, de nouvelles mutations sont rapportées et la proportion de mutations retrouvées chez les cas familiaux et sporadiques de SLA est évaluée. De plus, une nouvelle mutation est rapportée dans un cas juvénile de SLA; cette étude de cas est discutée. Dans un deuxième temps, de nouvelles avenues génétiques sont explorées concernant le gène SOD1. En effet, une nouvelle mutation complexe est rapportée chez une famille française de SLA. De plus, la possibilité qu’une mutation présente dans un autre gène impliqué dans la SLA ait un impact sur l’épissage du gène SOD1 est évaluée. Finalement, la dernière section explique la contribution de nouveaux gènes candidats chez les patients atteints de SLA. Spécifiquement, le rôle des gènes OPTN, SIGMAR1 et SORT1 dans le phénotype de SLA est évalué. Il est souhaité que nos résultats combinés avec les récents développements en génétique et biologie moléculaire permettent une meilleure compréhension du mécanisme pathologique responsable de cette terrible maladie tout en guidant le déploiement de thérapies suite à l’identification des cibles appropriées. / Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most common of motor neuron diseases, affecting 4-6 individuals per 100,000 individuals worldwide. ALS is characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy caused by the degeneration of neurons located in the motor cortex, brain stem and spinal cord. This fatal disease generally has an adult onset and progresses over a three to five year period. While 10% of patients affected have a family history of the disease, 90% of cases do not and are considered sporadic. The finding of mutations in the zinc/copper superoxide dismutase gene (SOD1) gene 19 years ago in about 15-20% of familial ALS (FALS) patients and approximately 2% of overall cases developed the interest of identifying rare genetics variants causing the disease. The ALS research field experienced a rapid progression during the last four years as mutations in new genes have been identified. While mutations in some of those new genes have been clearly linked to ALS, the role of others is still questionable and so far has not been positively replicated in other populations. Importantly, a significant portion of cases still need to be genetically explained and, unfortunately, there is still no effective treatment to cure, attenuate or prevent the disease. The aim of this Ph.D research project was to identify new ALS mutated genes while analysing the causative role of other newly identified genes in a large familial and sporadic ALS cohort of different origins. The results presented here are categorized into three different sections. First, the contribution of FUS mutations to familial, sporadic and juvenile ALS is analysed. Specifically, new FUS mutations are reported in ALS cases and the proportions of variants present in the tested familial and sporadic ALS cohorts are assessed. In addition, a new mutation is reported in a juvenile ALS patient, and this interesting case is discussed. Second, new genetic avenues are explored for the SOD1 gene. Precisely, a new and complex SOD1 mutation is reported in a French ALS family. Moreover, the possibility that other ALS mutated genes influence SOD1 splicing events is evaluated. Third, the contribution of new candidate genes is evaluated. Precisely, the contribution of OPTN, SIGMAR1 and SORT1 genes to the ALS phenotype is assessed. Hopefully, our different findings combined with recent developments in genetics and molecular biology will permit a better understanding of the pathological mechanisms involved in the disease and will lead to the identification of the right targets in order to develop appropriate therapeutics for ALS patients.