Environmental costs of products are closely related to their environmental impacts incurred at all life cycle stages of a product. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) methods are often used to estimate these environmental costs and impacts. However, LCA analysis is known to be a costly and time-consuming method, whereas LCC analysis often neglects the social cost which is currently paid by society as a whole. Therefore, this research proposes a new methodology to assess the environmental impact and social cost for the entire life cycle of a product, which can be used as a simple and transparent tool for the early conceptual design stage. The methodology delivers the Environmental Impact Drivers and the associated Social Cost Drivers for all product life cycle stages via spreadsheets, and it provides the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method in the SimaPro software as a user interface. Furthermore, the drivers provide the values for four different geographical regions and damage categories. The conceptual model is based on the impact pathway approach which integrates the Simplified LCA (SLCA) model and the social cost databases. The SLCA model is derived from an extension of previous research whereas the social costs are based on the most suitable Economic Valuation (EV) studies such as the EPS2000d, EXMOD, Ecosense and Asian EV studies. The data collection for the SLCA database was accomplished by using the LCA analysis of the Eco Indicator 99 H/A method and the Hierarchical clustering technique. The data for the social cost database was collected using the Benefit Transfer Method which obtains the EV studies mainly from the Environmental Valuation Reference Inventory (EVRI) data source. Several case studies utilising existing products, including a product redesign case study were used to prove the concept and demonstrate the efficiency of this proposed methodology.

This thesis investigates the participation of Maori (New Zealand�s indigenous people) in the impact assessment process. Traditionally, Maori have had limited involvement in the management of New Zealand�s environment. One possible solution to this could be through the adoption of a collaborative management framework. Unfortunately, there is limited information and research on tools that could facilitate collaborative management between iwi and applicants for resource consent (including, developers, planning consultants and local authorities). Therefore, this research attempts to fill in a gap in current literature and to investigate the potential of the cultural impact assessment as a tool for collaborative management. Despite some criticisms of collaborative management, there are examples where this form of communicative planning has resulted in a very positive outcome for indigenous groups. Therefore, the specific aim of this research is to analyse the extent to which cultural impact assessments can be used as a tool to promote collaborative management between iwi and applicants. In achieving the research objectives of the thesis, the theoretical background of collaborative management and impact assessment theories are explored. In addition, democracy and participation theories are also investigated. In particular, in the discussion of these theories emphasis is placed on the potential involvement of indigenous peoples. The thesis argues that the application of collaborative management via the use of cultural impact assessments may potentially increase Maori involvement in planning. Analysis of collaborative management and impact assessment theories is supported by empirical research. This includes; 1) an exploration of the New Zealand setting for the two theories, 2) a content analysis of cultural impact assessments from eight different iwi authority in New Zealand, and 3) a case study analysis of two iwi organizations that have an established system for undertaking cultural impact assessments (Kai Tahu ki Otago and the Wellington Tenths Trust). The research finds that cultural impact assessments are very similar to other impact assessment reports. However, they should be viewed as evolving documents, as there are some areas of the assessment process that need to be improved upon. The research concludes by suggesting that cultural impact assessments do have the potential to be a tool for collaborative management between iwi and applicants. Further research and education in relation to the content, value and process of cultural impact assessments is required. It is also argued that increased resourcing, training and legislative requirements are needed to further increase Maori participation in planning.

Healthy riparian vegetation has a positive impact on the adjacent river. Unfortunately, riparian vegetation is often threatened by human impacts such as dam construction and clearing. To gain the knowledge underlying the effects of such impacts and to aid riparian rehabilitation, the objective of this thesis was: to determine riparian vegetation association with, and response to, variation in fluvial geomorphology over several scales and consequently to fluvial disturbance. Only woody riparian plant species were considered. Flood disturbance was the unifying theme of this thesis. Linked to this theme and arising from the main objective was the supposition that plant interactions with the abiotic environment, but not biotic interactions between species, control riparian species distribution because of frequent fluvial disturbances. Woody riparian vegetation and riverine environmental variables were recorded along the upper Murrumbidgee River at three spatial scales based on a geomorphic hierarchy for Chapter 2. Multivariate analysis was used to group species and to associate environmental variables with vegetation at the three spatial scales. Observations at the two larger scales, of river segment (site) and riparian reach (transect), identified a river-longitudinal speciescomposition gradient associated with geology, river width and stream channel slope. Observations at the smallest scale of geomorphic units (plot) identified a lateral riparian gradient and also the longitudinal gradient; these gradients were associated with geomorphic variation, land use, plot elevation and also river longitudinal variables. Using the same data set, but varying the spatial scale of analysis caused the species composition pattern to change between scales. Increase in scale of observation, that is from geomorphic unit to reach and segment scales, resulted in disproportionate importance of rarer species and decreased importance of some key riparian species at the larger scales. It would appear that in this instance the geomorphic unit scale best described patches of different species composition because this scale had high spatial resolution and was also able to identify multiple gradients of environmental variation. It was recommended that riparian sampling take place at scales that represent dominant gradients in the riparian zone. These gradients are represented by geomorphic scales, indicating the appropriateness of using geomorphic based scales for observation of riparian vegetation. Chapter 3 considered whether there is a geomorphic template upon which riparian vegetation is patterned and whether it is associated with process variables, such as flooding and soil type. This question was investigated at different spatial scales in three ways: i) by an experiment to determine whether soil nutrient condition affects plant growth; ii) by graphical analysis of trends between geomorphic units, species and process variables; and iii) by analysis of vegetation distribution data. The smallest scale (meso) found experimental differences in plant growth because of soil type. Plants growing in sand had the lowest performance, with an average plant Relative Growth Rate (RGR) of 0.01, compared to plants growing in soils with small amounts of silt or clay particles, with an average plant RGR of 0.04. This pattern was attributed to differences in nutrients. Clear relationships were demonstrated at the larger geomorphic unit scale between species distribution and process variables. For example, hydrology and substratum type were found to be associated with geomorphic units and species. The largest scale considered in Chapter 3 was the riparian reach scale. At this scale species were clearly grouped around reach type. Therefore, geomorphology was considered to be a template for riparian species distribution. Findings in this chapter suggested that geomorphic variables should be good predictors of riparian species distribution. This hypothesis was tested and supported in Chapter 6. The experiments reported in Chapter 4 aimed to determine whether inundation depth and duration affected plant performance and survival for five common riparian zone species. Riparian seedling patterns in the field were also compared with experimental results to test whether species performance was reflected by field distribution. The experiments that were conducted included an inundation period and depth experiment, and a survival period test whilst under complete inundation. Biomass and height relative growth rates were determined, and the results were analysed using factorial Analysis of Variance. Obligate riparian species (Callistemon sieberi, Casuarina Cunninghamiana, Leptospermum obovatum) were found to be tolerant of inundation duration and depth, to the point where inundation provided a growth subsidy. On the other hand, non-obligate riparian species (Acacia dealbata, Kunzea ericoides) were either just tolerant of inundation or showed a negative growth response. For instance, C. sieberi demonstrated an average height RGR of 0.04 after complete inundation and 0.007 when not inundated, while A. dealbata had an average height RGR of 0.001 after complete inundation and 0.01 when not inundated. These experimental findings were found to closely reflect both seedling and adult plant distribution in the field such that inundation tolerant species were found close to the river and intolerant species further away. Thus, the conclusion was drawn that riparian species establishment and distribution is affected by inundation and that change to the flood regime could have serious impacts on riparian zone plant composition. The other aim of this chapter was to determine whether optimum germination temperatures were associated with flood or rainfall. Growth chamber germination trials were conducted at air temperatures of 15�C, 20�C and 25�C to determine the 'best' germination temperature. These germination patterns at different temperatures were then related to annual variation in field temperature, flooding period and rainfall. No evidence was found to suggest a relationship between ideal germination temperature and flood season, rather it was suggested that germination was patchy through time and may simply reflect recent rainfall. Investigations that were reported in Chapter 5 aimed to elucidate relationships between species and flow velocity variables. Two experiments were conducted: i) a flume experiment to determine the effect of flow velocity on plant growth; and ii) an experiment to observe the response of plants to damage (imitating flood damage) and inundation. Field observations of species distribution and flow velocity related variables were also conducted to put the flume results into a real-world context. Treatments for the flume experiment were fast flow velocity (0.74 m s-1), slow velocity (0.22 m s-1) and no velocity (control) but still inundated. All treatments were flooded completely for four days. Subsequent biomass and height relative growth rates were determined, and the results were analysed using factorial Analysis of Variance. Results were unexpected, given that obligate species exposed to the fastest velocity had the highest growth rate with an average height RGR of 0.046, compared to plants in still water, which grew the least with an average height RGR of 0.013. It was hypothesised that this response was because relatively greater carbon dioxide and oxygen levels were available in the moving water compared to the still water. With regard to shoot damage, the species that were nonobligate riparian species lost more leaves from velocity treatment than the obligate riparian species. The cut and flood experiment found growth of the obligate species (Casuarina cunninghamiana) to be greater after cutting than the non-obligate species. Flooding was not found to have an effect in the cut and flood experiment, probably because the period to sampling after flood treatment was longer (4 weeks) than other flooding experiments (3 weeks). Field observations were found to support the experimental findings, with a gradient of species across the riparian zone that reflected potential flood velocities. Therefore, velocity is one of a suite of riparian hydrological factors that are partially responsible for the gradient of species across the riparian zone. Potentially the absence of flooding could result in a homogeneous mix of species, rather than a gradient, except on the very edge of the river. The study that was reported in Chapter 6 investigated a technique for predicting riparian vegetation distribution. One of the aims of this investigation was to address a current riparian rehabilitation shortfall, which was how to objectively select species to plant for rehabilitation. Field data were collected from three confined river valleys in south-eastern New South Wales. Using data on plant species occurrence and site and plot measures of soils, hydrology and climate, an AUSRIVAS-style statistical model, based on cluster and discriminant analysis, was developed to predict the probability of species occurrence. The prediction accuracy was 85 % when tested with a separate set of plots not used in model construction. Problems were encountered with the prediction of rarer species, but if the probability of selection was varied according to the frequency of species occurrence then rarer species would be predicted more often. Various models were tested for accuracy including three rivers combined at the geomorphic unit (plot) scale and riparian reach (transect) scale in addition to a Murrumbidgee River plot scale model. Surprisingly, the predictive accuracy of the all rivers and single river models were approximately the same. However, the difference between the large scale and small scale models pointed to the importance of including small scale flood-related parameters to predict riparian vegetation. When these riparian predictions were compared to predictive outcomes from a hill slope model, which was assumed to be affected by fewer disturbances (i.e. flooding), predictive accuracies were not very different. Overall though, predictive accuracy for riparian vegetation was high, but not good enough to support the supposition that riparian vegetation is abiotically controlled because of frequent flood disturbance. Nevertheless, geomorphology and consequently flood effects are still important for the determination of the riparian community composition. Overall, riparian vegetation was found to be closely linked to its environment (evidenced in Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5) in a predictable manner (Chapter 6). Species pattern relied on flood disturbance affecting species distribution. Some riparian species were found to be highly tolerant of flooding and gained a growth advantage after flooding (Chapters 4 and 5). Therefore, flood tolerance was important for the formation of a species gradient across the riparian zone. These species tolerances and growth requirements reflect riparian geomorphic pattern (Chapter 3), which was suggested to form a template on which riparian vegetation is structured.

In this thesis I examine the population ecology of wild horses (Equus caballus) in the Australian Alps. Wild horses were first introduced into the Alps over 150 years ago. Paradoxically, they are a feral animal impacting on the environment, but are also a cultural icon. Managing wild horse populations is contentious and needs to be founded on knowledge of their population ecology. This is the first study of its kind in the Australian Alps and therefore has a broad focus. Four general areas were addressed: distribution, estimation of abundance and density, population dynamics and the influence of brumby-running. The study was conducted between 1999 and 2002 inclusive in the Australian Alps national parks, which form a contiguous protected area in south-eastern Australia from the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in the north, through New South Wales (NSW) and into Victoria in the south. The current distribution of wild horses in the Australian Alps national parks is patchy. There are five major discrete populations in NSW and Victoria with the northern most population in Kosciuszko National Park (NSW) bordering on the ACT. A review of published material and oral history reveals historic influences on distribution. The presence of each population is associated with introductions by people. The distribution of some populations expanded after introductions and many have fluctuated over time. Distributions have been contained or reduced through control by people, natural events such as snow and drought and by geographical barriers. Park managers eliminated a population of wild horses in the ACT in the 1980s. Distributions have expanded in areas without active management (notably northern Kosciuszko National Park) and are likely to continue expanding under a policy of no management. In February and March 2001, abundance and density of wild horses were estimated by helicopter aerial survey in areas where the mapping showed horses to occur. This was the first time that these parameters have been estimated empirically. I compared three different aerial survey techniques (strip, mark-recapture and line transect) based on relative accuracy and precision and found that line transect analysis gave the highest, most precise estimate. Given that aerial surveys usually underestimate abundance, this method was also likely to be the most accurate. Mark-recapture over a 50m wide strip gave a similar result but lacked precision. Strip and mark-recapture techniques performed poorly over 200m strips because animals were missed. Numbers observed dropped off dramatically beyond the 50m strip. Line transect analysis (for both observers combined) gave an estimate of 5010 (+/- 1408SE) horses while mark recapture over 50 metres gave an estimate of 4915 (+/-2733SE). These estimates correspond to a density of 1.8 horses km-2 over the area surveyed (2789km2). The results suggest that aerial surveys of large mammals using a wide strip width (200m) and mark recapture analysis may seriously underestimate population density. The population dynamics and demography of wild horses were estimated at three sites, Big Boggy, Cowombat and Currango, every spring and autumn over 3 years. The sites were spread widely across the Alps with the aim of obtaining a broad understanding of population dynamics. The survey used Pollock�s robust design and natural markings were used to identify individuals. There was a seasonal spring peak in population size at Big Boggy with no clear seasonal trend at the other two sites. Mean wild horse densities determined at Big Boggy (2.01km-2) and Currango (2.13km-2) were not significantly (p<0.5) different to the density calculated in the aerial survey, whereas density was significantly higher at Cowombat (6.4 km-2). Census techniques were of limited use in estimating annual population growth rate because of low precision. Demographic analysis showed that none of the populations were increasing at the maximum intrinsic rate (l = 1.2), and the Big Boggy and Cowombat populations may be stable (l = 1.0/yr). There was an apparent trend of food limitation across the sites. Body condition was positively related (p<0.01) to pasture biomass. The Currango population was increasing (l = 0.09) associated with higher recruitment, body condition and pasture biomass than in the other two populations studied. The Cowombat population had the lowest annual finite rate of increase (l = 1.03), and horses at this site were in the poorest condition and pasture biomass was lowest. The Big Boggy population was intermediate between the two. Annual adult survival was constant in all populations at 0.91. Survival in the first three years of life was more variable with the average at each site ranging from 0.63/yr to 0.76/yr. An average of 0.26 female foals was born per adult female per year. Sensitivity analysis showed that population growth rate is most sensitive to changes in adult survival, followed by fecundity and then survival in the first three years of life. The dynamics observed at each site was representative of the demography of wild horses in other parts of the world and is typical for large mammalian herbivores. Brumby-running is a form of harvesting that is currently being used to control wild horses in the Alpine National Park (Victoria) and is soon to be trialled in Kosciuszko National Park (NSW). The effectiveness of brumby-running has not been assessed prior to this study. Data collected by the Alpine Brumby Management Association and predictive modelling were used to examine the influence of brumby-running on the wild horse population in Alpine National Park. Brumby-runners remove about 200 horses per year with a preference for young animals and adult females. More horses are caught in autumn (61/yr) and least in summer (30/yr) (p<0.05). Brumby-runners do not appear (p>0.05) to target horses in poor condition. One skilled brumby-runner caught an average of 1.16 horses/day, while his companions caught an average of 0.55 horses/day. Brumby-runners show behaviour analogous to social carnivores. Predictive modelling suggests that brumby-runners could suppress the population of wild horses in Alpine National Park similar to the effects of predators, or human harvesting of other large mammals. Selecting young animals in the harvest reduces the impact of harvesting on the population compared to unselective harvesting, while selecting adult females increases the predicted impact. There are several management recommendations based on the findings of this thesis that address concerns for both environmental impact and the cultural value of wild horses. The distribution of wild horses should not be allowed to expand further, and the size of the wild horse population should be prevented from increasing further. Other management recommendations that are more complex involve reducing some populations so that the level of environmental impact they are causing is acceptable. This requires a definition of �acceptable impact.� Finally managers should consider eradicating smaller populations.

After more than a decade of environmental impact assessment ( EIA ) provisions within South Australian Planning Act, 1982 it is appropriate to examine the role of the environmental impact statement ( EIS ) as a major element of EIA and an important decision making tool for major projects over this period. The thesis first provides a review of EIA from its overseas origins to its development at the Commonwealth level in Australia. This provides the context within which to examine the system of EIA for major developments or projects in South Australia, which are dealt with largely through the EIS process. The thesis examines the type of projects which, according to the discretionary criteria in the Planning Act, have attracted EIS requirements between 1982 - 1993 and uses this to determine generic groupings of projects. It is noted that marinas represent the largest group of projects with EIS requirements, although EISs have been called for power generation related projects, electricity transmission line projects, tourist related projects, industrial projects, mining projects, water management projects, transport projects and a number of other projects. The thesis examines the number of EISs that have been completed, whether or not the projects have been approved or rejected and to what extent any patterns have emerged. The thesis then focuses on all the completed EISs in terms of their content, timing of preparation, public involvement and response, associated legislative requirements, type and role of developer, type and role of EIS consultant, the assessment of the EIS, and the decision making process. The thesis notes the high approval rate for projects with completed EISs suggesting most of the environmental problems have been resolved or are capable of being resolved. It is also noted that a number of projects are abandoned before the EIS is ever completed and that the few rejected EIS proposals are associated with high numbers of public submissions. Although each of the rejected proposals has a complex history of project development, environmental assessment and negotiations, it is noted that the decision to reject the proposals was ultimately a political decision. The thesis comments on the limited role of the South Australian Planning Commission ( SAPC ) in EIS project decision making in South Australia and the increasing use of the Governor as a decision maker. Although the SAPC is the statutory planning authority it is constrained by having to have regard to the principles in the Development Plan which is geared toward development control rather than for the extraordinary major projects which become subject to EIS requirements. The thesis then examines proposed changes to EIA in the context of early attempts to initiate EIA reform in South Australia through to the current Development Bill. These proposals are placed in context with changes to EIA procedures that have taken place at the Commonwealth level, the proposed development of a national agreement on EIA, and also the implications for EIA which are likely to flow from recent Commonwealth initiatives on ecologically sustainable development strategies. In addition the implications of recently developed environment protection agencies and associated legislation are examined at both the State and Commonwealth levels. Collectively these reviews and analyses provide the context of current thinking on EIA as it is likely to affect South Australian EIA processes in the future. Finally the thesis discusses the evolving role of the South Australian EIS in the context of its evolutionary process and the proposed legislative changes in South Australia, together with other related initiatives. This discussion touches on a number of issues such as public administration, the actual practice of the EIA process as opposed to the theory of EIA and what is written into the EIA legislation. In conclusion an overview is given of the current role of the EIS with some predictions for the future of EIA in South Australia. / Thesis (M.Plan.)--Department of Architecture, 1993.

No description available.

<p>Assessment of impacts on nature and reindeer husbandry by the considered mountain road between Borgafjäll and Saxnäs- Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institutes method for assessment of damage to heritage assets</p><p>There are plans regarding the building of a new road from Borgafjäll/Båtas to Saxnäs, and two road alternatives have been presented. The road has been localized to an area which is protected as a nature reserve and listed as a Nature 2000 area. This report aims to determine the effects on the Nature 2000 area and reindeer husbandry, and to be a source of knowledge for future environmental impact assessment in that project. In order to assess the impact on nature values and reindeer husbandry a method from the Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) has been used. A literature review has been made to prescribe the effects and consequences. Interviews and geographical information system analysis compliments the report. Both alternatives are going to affect arctic birch forests and specially protected mires. Almost one fifth of the protected arctic birch forest in Gitsfjällets nature reserve will be affected by the alternatives. The distribution and reproduction of arctic fox and wolverine will also be complicated and inhibited. The alternatives are going to create a barrier and fragment the area for reindeer husbandry. This will disturb the reindeer’s mating and calving. On the basis of VTI’s method for the assessment of damage to heritage assets the conclusion is that both road alternatives will affect the nature value and reindeer husbandry negatively. The prerequisite to build the road depends on whether the community</p>

<p>The aim of this thesis is to analyse the legal notion of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in order to provide, on a scientific basis, increased understanding and knowledge of the different components of this legal notion and each component’s importance for the whole. The objective is to specify what EIA is at present and what it is intended to be. This thesis analyses the legal tool, shows what the rules are in a few selected countries and goes on to discuss how it could be developed in order best to fulfil its function of promoting sustainable development. The question asked throughout this thesis is how the EIA rules should be designed in terms of their content and construction in order to function as a legal tool to promote sustainable development.</p>

After decades of investigation, we still have to deal withthe problem of environmental effects of the use of de-icingsalt on roads. Lacking useful indicators of the system, westill do not know the environmental utility of ameliorativemeasures taken. The thesis aims at i) describing the system of de-icing practices and theirenvironmental effects with special reference to the exposure ofthe roadside environment to air-borne salt and damage to Norwayspruce seedlings and ii) at proposing indicators for afollow-up system. By collecting bulk deposition and relatingthe deposition pattern to factors concerning wind androad-maintenance characteristics, the influence of thesefactors on air-borne exposure is investigated. By exposingNorway spruce (Picea abies(L.) Karst.) seedlings to roadsideconditions the influence ofsalt exposure on the degree ofdamage is investigated. Based on a comparison of severalsystems of monitoring, improvements are suggested by proposingnew indicators for salt use and its environmental effects. A large part of the salt that is applied on the road surfacewill be transported by air and deposited on the ground in theroadside. While the vast majority of the salt will be depositedwithin some tens of metres of the road, some may still be windtransported several hundred metres away. The wind directionplays an important role for the deposition already at adistance of some ten metres from the road. Wind speedinfluences the distance to which the salt is transported.Chloride concentration in unwashed needles collected after thesalting season is positively related to the bulk deposition ofCl during the exposure. The degree of damage can be describedby a sigmoid curve of response to the Cl concentration inneedles. Improvements to the follow-up system are suggested byproposing indicators of the driving forces, pressures, states,impacts and possible responses as regards the undesired impactson water resources, vegetation and the roadside scenery as asocietal asset. <b>Keywords:</b>road, de-icing salt, air-borne, environmentalimpact, vegetation damage, Norway spruce, seedling, follow-up,monitoring, indicator

The aim of this thesis is to analyse the legal notion of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in order to provide, on a scientific basis, increased understanding and knowledge of the different components of this legal notion and each component’s importance for the whole. The objective is to specify what EIA is at present and what it is intended to be. This thesis analyses the legal tool, shows what the rules are in a few selected countries and goes on to discuss how it could be developed in order best to fulfil its function of promoting sustainable development. The question asked throughout this thesis is how the EIA rules should be designed in terms of their content and construction in order to function as a legal tool to promote sustainable development.