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Welding is used extensively in aerospace, automotive, chemical, manufacturing, electronic and power-generation industries. Thermally-induced residual stresses due to welding can significantly impair the performance and reliability of welded structures. Numerical simulation of weld pool dynamics is important as experimental measurements of velocities and temperature profiles are difficult due to the small size of the weld pool and the presence of the arc. From a structural integrity perspective of welded structures, it is necessary to have an accurate spatial and temporal thermal distribution in the welded structure before stress analysis is performed. Existing research on weld pool dynamics simulation has ignored the effect of fluid flow in the weld pool on the temperature field of the welded joint. Previous research has established that the weld pool depth/width (D/W) ratio and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) are significantly altered by the weld pool dynamics. Hence, for a more accurate estimation of the thermally-induced stresses it is desired to incorporate the weld pool dynamics into the analysis. Moreover, the effects of microstructure evolution in the HAZ on the mechanical behavior of the structure need to be included in the analysis for better mechanical response prediction. In this study, a three-dimensional model for the thermo-mechanical analysis of Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding of thin stainless steel butt-joint plates has been developed. The model incorporates the effects of thermal energy redistribution through weld pool dynamics into the structural behavior calculations. Through material modeling the effects of microstructure change/phase transformation are indirectly included in the model. The developed weld pool dynamics model includes the effects of current, arc length, and electrode angle on the heat flux and current density distributions. All the major weld pool driving forces are included, namely surface tension gradient, plasma drag force, electromagnetic force, and buoyancy. The weld D/W predictions are validated with experimental results. They agree well. The effects of welding parameters (like welding speed, current, arc length, etc.) on the weld D/W ratio are documented. The workpiece deformation and stress distributions are also highlighted. The transverse and longitudinal residual stress distribution plots across the weld bead and their variations with welding speed and current are also provided. The mathematical framework developed here serves as a robust tool for better prediction of weld D/W ratio and thermally-induced stress evolution and distribution in a welded structure by coupling the different fields in a welding process. / Ph. D.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Energiebilanz von der Schweißenergiequelle bis zur Schmelzebildung im Bauteil eingehend analysiert. Hierfür wurden geeignete Messsysteme auf Basis der Kalorimetrie entwickelt und validiert. Neben dem Energieverbrauch der Anlage wird der Wärmeeintrag in das Bauteil kalorimetrisch analysiert. Zur umfassenden Analyse des Energieflusses werden zudem die Verlustgrößen, wie die Wärmeleitung, Wärmestrahlung und der Wärmedurchgang des Lichtbogens als auch der externe Brennerkühlkreislauf der Schweißenergiequelle untersucht. Neueste Untersuchungsmethoden ermöglichen zudem die Tropfentemperatur und die Lichtbogenleistung zu bestimmen. In Abhängigkeit definiert gewählter Prozessparameter wurde der Energiefluss für Schutzgasschweißverfahren mit abschmelzender und nicht abschmelzender Elektrode, sowie für das Unterpulverschweißen erstellt. Die einzelnen Wirkmechanismen der Prozesse wurden analysiert und bewertet sowie Zusammenhänge herausgestellt. Neben der Empfehlung für die Überarbeitung gültiger Normen, wie DIN EN 1011-1 kann mit der Kenntnis das Fügen temperatursensibler Werkstoffe verbessert werden. Gleichzeitig wird die Genauigkeit von Prozess- und Werkstoffsimulationen erhöht und Berechnung von Bauteildeformationen vereinfacht. Es wurden mittlere Tropfentemperaturen in einem Bereich zwischen TTr = 2.350…2.700°C ermittelt. Die Untersuchungen zeigen zudem, dass eine ausschließlich gezielte Änderung der Tropfentemperatur im Schweißprozess nicht möglich ist. Weiterhin konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der Lichtbogen und dessen Intensität den entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Entstehung des Einbandes in den Grundwerkstoff besitzt. / Welding performance is not the same as the energy input in the component. The efficiency is the ratio of usable to required energy. The aim of any process is to achieve a high efficiency, and thus to keep the share of losses as small as possible. Recent process developments in arc welding with consumable electrode have the aim to regulate the energy input in the component to achieve the target of an optimum welding result. This is based on a fundamental understanding of the operations during the welding process. For this purpose, the knowledge of the individual operations of the energy transport from the electrode contact to the heating behaviour of the component is necessary. Different measurement methods and results for the separate determination of the energy content of droplet and welding arc as well as energy input into the component are presented. For instance the question is analysed and discussed - whether the arc, or the overheated droplet is responsible for the weld penetration? In addition, the situation between relative and absolute efficiency of the welding process is discussed. In welding standards often global efficiencies for different welding processes are indicated. These standards provide this efficiency in relation to the as 100 % set submerged arc welding. This leads to errors in the use of the values for calculations or simulations. With the methods presented a sophisticated analysis of the influence of different parameter settings of the shielding gas welding process on the energy efficiency is possible.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Energiebilanz von der Schweißenergiequelle bis zur Schmelzebildung im Bauteil eingehend analysiert. Hierfür wurden geeignete Messsysteme auf Basis der Kalorimetrie entwickelt und validiert. Neben dem Energieverbrauch der Anlage wird der Wärmeeintrag in das Bauteil kalorimetrisch analysiert. Zur umfassenden Analyse des Energieflusses werden zudem die Verlustgrößen, wie die Wärmeleitung, Wärmestrahlung und der Wärmedurchgang des Lichtbogens als auch der externe Brennerkühlkreislauf der Schweißenergiequelle untersucht. Neueste Untersuchungsmethoden ermöglichen zudem die Tropfentemperatur und die Lichtbogenleistung zu bestimmen. In Abhängigkeit definiert gewählter Prozessparameter wurde der Energiefluss für Schutzgasschweißverfahren mit abschmelzender und nicht abschmelzender Elektrode, sowie für das Unterpulverschweißen erstellt. Die einzelnen Wirkmechanismen der Prozesse wurden analysiert und bewertet sowie Zusammenhänge herausgestellt. Neben der Empfehlung für die Überarbeitung gültiger Normen, wie DIN EN 1011-1 kann mit der Kenntnis das Fügen temperatursensibler Werkstoffe verbessert werden. Gleichzeitig wird die Genauigkeit von Prozess- und Werkstoffsimulationen erhöht und Berechnung von Bauteildeformationen vereinfacht. Es wurden mittlere Tropfentemperaturen in einem Bereich zwischen TTr = 2.350…2.700°C ermittelt. Die Untersuchungen zeigen zudem, dass eine ausschließlich gezielte Änderung der Tropfentemperatur im Schweißprozess nicht möglich ist. Weiterhin konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der Lichtbogen und dessen Intensität den entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Entstehung des Einbandes in den Grundwerkstoff besitzt. / Welding performance is not the same as the energy input in the component. The efficiency is the ratio of usable to required energy. The aim of any process is to achieve a high efficiency, and thus to keep the share of losses as small as possible. Recent process developments in arc welding with consumable electrode have the aim to regulate the energy input in the component to achieve the target of an optimum welding result. This is based on a fundamental understanding of the operations during the welding process. For this purpose, the knowledge of the individual operations of the energy transport from the electrode contact to the heating behaviour of the component is necessary. Different measurement methods and results for the separate determination of the energy content of droplet and welding arc as well as energy input into the component are presented. For instance the question is analysed and discussed - whether the arc, or the overheated droplet is responsible for the weld penetration? In addition, the situation between relative and absolute efficiency of the welding process is discussed. In welding standards often global efficiencies for different welding processes are indicated. These standards provide this efficiency in relation to the as 100 % set submerged arc welding. This leads to errors in the use of the values for calculations or simulations. With the methods presented a sophisticated analysis of the influence of different parameter settings of the shielding gas welding process on the energy efficiency is possible.

Desde meados do século XX, métodos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais foram utilizados para quantificar a eficiência térmica na soldagem a arco, isto é, a razão entre a energia do arco elétrico e a energia que é entregue ao material durante a soldagem. Conhecendo-se a eficiência térmica, as dimensões da chapa e as propriedades térmicas do metal de base, torna-se possível prever as taxas e tempos de resfriamento a partir de modelo analíticos. Consequentemente, permitindo a previsão das transformações de fase, garantindo que os valores das propriedades da junta soldada se enquadrem dentro de um intervalo desejado. Os modelos de previsão de taxa de resfriamento derivados a partir dos modelos analíticos de Rosenthal são validos apenas no regime quase estacionário. Todavia, estes modelos costumam ser utilizados com pouco critério, mesmo em situações em que este regime não é alcançado. Portanto, para o desenvolvimento de modelos mais precisos e acurados para previsões das taxas de resfriamento, torna-se necessário entender como os termos do balanço de energia se desenvolvem durante a soldagem, até atingir o regime quase estacionário. Este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver um entendimento mais abrangente dos fatores que impactam nos valores de taxas de resfriamento em juntas soldadas. Realizaram-se ensaios de calorimetria com nitrogênio líquido para diferentes tempos de soldagem, como também, foram coletados ciclos térmicos em diferentes posições ao longo do cordão, buscando entender como as variações no balanço de energia, ao longo da soldagem, impactam no material. A partir da Metodologia de Superfície de Resposta, foram obtidos os modelos empíricos da energia entregue ao material e da eficiência térmica do arco. Um novo entendimento acerca do balanço de energia na soldagem foi alcançado, servindo de base para o desenvolvimento e validação de um modelo preditivo de taxa de resfriamento, válido para diferentes condições de fluxo de energia no material. / Since the early 20th century, numerical and experimental methods have been used to quantify the thermal arc efficiency in welding, i.e., the ratio between the electric arc energy and the energy delivered to the material during welding. Knowing the thermal arc efficiency, the sample dimensions and the thermal properties of the base metal, it is possible to predict the cooling rates by analytical models. Consequently, allowing the prediction of phase transformations in the material, ensuring that values of welded joint properties are within a desired range. Cooling rate prediction models derived from Rosenthal\'s analytical models are valid only in quasi-stationary state. However, these models are used with little criterion, even in situations where this state is not achieved. Therefore, to development of more accurate and precise models for the prediction of cooling rate it become necessary to understand the evolution of the energy balance during the welding until the quasi-stationary state was reached. This work aims to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that affect the cooling rate in welded joints. Calorimetry tests with liquid nitrogen were carried out for different welding times, and thermal cycles were collected at different positions along the weld bead, to understand how the variations in the energy balance during the welding affect the material. From the Response Surface Methodology, the empirical models of delivered energy and the thermal arc efficiency were obtained. A new understanding about the energy balance in the welding was found, that was used for the development and validation of a predictive model of cooling rate, valid for different condition of energy flow in the material.

Welding of duplex stainless steel pipeline material for the oil and gas industry is now common practice. To date, research has been conducted primarily on the parent material and heat affected zones in terms of its susceptibility to various forms of corrosion. However, there has been little research conducted on the degree of sensitisation of the various successive weld layers, namely the root, fill and cap layers. The focus of this research study was to: (i) provide an in-depth microstructural analysis of the various weld passes, (ii) study the mechanical properties of the weld regions; (iii) determine degree of sensitisation of the various weld passes; and (iv) investigate the residual stress levels within the various regions/ phases of the welds. Four test conditions were prepared using manual Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with 'V' and 'U' bevel configuration. Structural analysis consisted of (i) optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and magnetic force microscopy; (ii) ferrite determination using Magna-Gauge, Fischer Ferrite-scope and Point Count method. Mechanical testing consisted of Vickers hardness measurements, Charpy impact studies and transverse tensile testing. The degree of sensitisation was determined by three test methods: a modified ASTM A262, ASTM A923 and a modified Double Loop Electrochemical Potentiodynamic Reactivation (DL-EPR) test. Residual stress levels were determined using two neutron diffraction techniques: a reactor source and a time of flight spallation source. Microstructure observed by optical microscopy and magnetic force microscopy shows the formation of both fine and coarse structures within the weld metal. There was no evidence of secondary austenite, being present in any of the weld metal conditions examined. In addition, no detrimental intermetallic phases or carbides were present. The DL-EPR test results revealed that the fill layer regions for all four conditions and the base material showed the highest values for Ir/Ia and Qr/Qa. All four test conditions passed the ASTM A262 and A923 qualitative type tests, even under restricted and modified conditions. Residual stress measurements by neutron diffraction conducted at Lucas Heights Hi-Flux Reactor revealed that the ferrite phase stress was tensile in the heat affected zones and weld, and appeared to be balanced by a local compressive austenite phase stresses in the normal and transverse directions. Residual stress measurements by neutron diffraction conducted at Los Alamos Nuclear Science Centre revealed that in the hoop direction, ferrite (211) and austenite (311) exhibit tensile strains in the weld. In the axial and radial direction, the strains for both phases were more compressive. Correlations between the degree of sensitization and microstructural changes / ferrite content were observed. Higher degrees of sensitization (Ir/Ia and Qr/Qa) were associated with reduced ferrite (increased austenite) content. Correlations between the stresses generated, the evolved microstructures and degree of sensitization were evident. Stresses within the cap region were generally shown to be of a tensile nature in the transverse and longitudinal direction. In summary, the study has shown that correlations exist between the weld microstructure, susceptibility to sensitisation and levels / distribution of internal stresses within the weld regions.

The objective of this research is to develop a method to evaluate important weld dimensions in thin plates by using laser generated ultrasounds and EMAT receiver. The superimposed laser sources (SLS) technique is developed to generate narrowband Lamb waves with fixed wavelengths in thin plates. The method permits the flexibility of selecting desired wavelength. The signal processing procedure that combines wavenumber-frequency (k-w) domain filtering and synthetic phase tuning (SPT) is used to further reduce the complexity of Lamb waves. The k-w domain filtering technique helps to filter out the unwanted wave components traveling at the direction that is not of interest to us and the SPT technique is applied to amplify and isolate a particular Lamb wave mode. The signal processing procedure facilitates the calculation of reflection coefficients of Lamb waves that result from the presence of weld joints. The SLS and signal processing procedure are then applied to measure reflection coefficients in butt welds and lap welds. Two methods, the direct method and indirect method, are used to develop models that use reflection coefficients as predictors to predict these weld dimensions. The models developed in this research are shown to accurately predict weld dimensions in thin plates.

An experimental program was developed to test various unreinforced RHS-to-RHS 90° T-connections subject to branch in-plane bending moment with the objective of determining the effectiveness of the welded joint. Twelve unique test specimens were designed to be weld-critical and the results from the full-scale tests revealed that the current equation for the effective elastic section modulus for in-plane bending, S_ip, given in Table K4.1 of ANSI/AISC 360 (2010) is conservative. A modification to the current requirements that limit the effective width of the transverse weld elements is proposed, resulting in a safe and more economical weld design method for RHS-to-RHS T-, Y- and X- connections subject to branch axial load or bending moment. It is also concluded that the fillet weld directional strength enhancement factor, (1.00 + 0.50sin1.5Ө), should not be used for strength calculations of welded joints to square and rectangular hollow structural sections.