This thesis describes the system of submitting observations envisaged in Article 23 of the Protocol on the Statute of the European Court of Justice. The thesis seeks to illustrate and criticize the utilization of the system enshrined in Article 23 by the member states of the European Union. The experience of the United Kingdom is analyzed by examining the preliminary ruling judgments that the government of the United Kingdom has submitted observations in order to describe the system and demonstrate its application by a member state of the European Union.

<p>The aim of this thesis is to use a power perspective to describe the workers’ struggle for co-determination in the Swedish labour market during the period 1890–1939. The study explores how trade unions in general attempted to limit article 23, which asserted employers’ control over hiring and dismissal. At the same time the study clarifies differences in union power between various groups of workers. The prevalent historical view regarding the distribution of power in the labour market is thus questioned.</p><p>The study shows that workers were not powerless before the Saltsjöbaden agreement in 1938. In certain areas workers, through their unions, already at the beginning of the 20th century had fairly good possibilities of influencing both hiring and dismissal. Collective agreements that were entered into before the defeat of the workers in the great conflict in the Swedish labour market in 1909, as well as collective agreements signed during the 1920s and 1930s, can make both the Saltsjöbaden agreement and present-day regulations look “hostile to workers”. In collective agreements workers achieved considerable limitations of employers’ arbitrary freedom to hire and dismiss workers. Certain unions could control their labour market efficiently by means of a labour exchange of their own. The development, however, varied over time and between different trade unions. Business cycles generally influenced how much power unions could exert. Access to power resources and other conditions varied between different workers’ groups. While some attained considerable power over hiring and dismissal, others had no possibilities of taking part in decision-making.</p>

The aim of this thesis is to use a power perspective to describe the workers’ struggle for co-determination in the Swedish labour market during the period 1890–1939. The study explores how trade unions in general attempted to limit article 23, which asserted employers’ control over hiring and dismissal. At the same time the study clarifies differences in union power between various groups of workers. The prevalent historical view regarding the distribution of power in the labour market is thus questioned. The study shows that workers were not powerless before the Saltsjöbaden agreement in 1938. In certain areas workers, through their unions, already at the beginning of the 20th century had fairly good possibilities of influencing both hiring and dismissal. Collective agreements that were entered into before the defeat of the workers in the great conflict in the Swedish labour market in 1909, as well as collective agreements signed during the 1920s and 1930s, can make both the Saltsjöbaden agreement and present-day regulations look “hostile to workers”. In collective agreements workers achieved considerable limitations of employers’ arbitrary freedom to hire and dismiss workers. Certain unions could control their labour market efficiently by means of a labour exchange of their own. The development, however, varied over time and between different trade unions. Business cycles generally influenced how much power unions could exert. Access to power resources and other conditions varied between different workers’ groups. While some attained considerable power over hiring and dismissal, others had no possibilities of taking part in decision-making.

La recherche doctorale entend réfléchir sur la justiciabiliité des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels. Dépouillant la jurisprudence belge, elle entend, dans un premier temps, faire le point sur la justiciabilité actuelle des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels en Belgique. Cette analyse de la jurisprudence belge confirme que les "droits à" sont justiciables au sein de l'ordre juridique belge, mais que cette justiciabilité est nettement plus assurée lorsqu'ils sont invoqués sous leur versant négatif que lorsqu'ils sont mobilisés sous leur versant positif. S'il en est ainsi c'est, semble-t-il, notamment en raison de la sous-conceptualisation dont souffre l'obligation positive de réaliser les droits économiques, sociaux et culturels au sein de l'ordre juridique interne. Dans un deuxième temps, la dissertation doctorale cherche donc à identifier, à partir d'une étude de la jurisprudence internationale, des outils conceptuels permettant de clarifier la portée de l'obligation de réaliser les droits économiques, sociaux et culturels afin d'en affermir la justiciabilité. Trois concepts-clés permettent de clarifier cette portée: la progressivité, le noyau dur et le devoir de minutie Avec l’exigence de la progressivité, il est entendu que, si l’État ne doit pas atteindre immédiatement un résultat déterminé, il doit optimiser l’usage de ses ressources afin d’accomplir immédiatement des progrès tangibles dans la réalisation des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels. L’exigence du noyau dur consiste, pour l’État, à assurer, en tout temps et en toutes circonstances, une protection minimale des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels en vue de protéger les individus les plus vulnérables. Quant au devoir de minutie, il requiert que l’État agisse de manière minutieuse, ce qui implique notamment qu’il dispose d’une information suffisante avant de prendre ses décisions et qu’il puisse justifier les décisions qu’il a prises de manière appropriée. Notre thèse propose que l’obligation de réaliser soit contrôlée à travers le devoir de minutie appliqué aux exigences de la progressivité et du noyau dur. Le devoir de minutie constitue donc le prisme – ou les « lunettes » – à travers lequel les juges peuvent apprécier si les autorités publiques ont respecté les obligations substantielles de progressivité et de respect du noyau dur. Cette conceptualisation de l’obligation de réaliser les droits économiques, sociaux et culturels permet de dégager des critères clairs et stables qui peuvent servir de guide tant pour les autorités politiques chargées de l’exécuter que pour les juridictions chargées d’en contrôler le respect. La conceptualisation proposée peut donc déboucher sur un renforcement du contrôle juridictionnel et de sa prévisibilité. / Doctorat en Sciences juridiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished