No description available.

Objectives: Cardiovascular disease (CVD), including heart attack, angina, and stroke, is ranked as the number one cause of mortality world wide. High blood cholesterol is linked to CVD and is an important risk factor. Statins – cholesterol lowering drugs- are first choice drugs for reducing the chance of suffering a CVD event. In the USA alone, approximately 32 million individuals take statins. Although randomized control trials of statins have demonstrated their efficacy in preventing CVD, much less information has been reported on their unintended effects. Although not thought of traditionally as antimicrobials, statins have been shown to have antimicrobial effects in vitro. The statins belong to a family of drugs that lower cholesterol levels by inhibiting 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, a rate limiting enzyme in the human mevalonate pathway of which cholesterol in the biosynthetic end product. The mevalonate pathway is an important cellular metabolic pathway present in many bacteria. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the in vitro efficacy of statins against selected strains of oral streptococci, as determined by the minimum inhibitory concentration. A second related objective is to assess the in vitro effect of statins on single species biofilm formation , as determined by binding of the same streptococci to hydroxyapatite pegs. Methods: The effect of statins on S. mutans, S. sanguis, and S. salivarius was determined by finding the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) by broth dilution assays. Simvastatin, pravastatin atorvastatin, and rousuvastatin were used in this study. The minimum inhibitory concentration was considered to be the lowest concentration of statin that prevented bacterial growth, i.e. a clear test tube. Experiments were repeated twice for each bacterial species. The effect of simvastatin, atorvastatin, and pravastatin on the ability of S. mutans and S. sanguis to form single species biofilm was assayed using sterile microplates and the MBEC Biofilm Inoculator (Innovatech). Results: Two trials indicated that the MIC of simvastatin against the selected oral bacteria was determined to be 15.6 μg/ml for S. mutans and S. sanguis, and 7.8 μg/ml for S. salivarius. The MIC of rosuvastatin and atorvastatin was determined to be 100 μg/ml against all three streptococci, whereas the MIC of pravastatin was even higher (200 μg/ml) against all three streptococci. Likewise, two trials indicated that statins decreased single species biofilm formation by S. mutans and S. sanguis. For simvastatin, biofilm formation was decreased by concentrations eight fold below the MIC . The results were substantiated by spectrophotometric assay . For atorvastatin and pravastatin, biofilm formation was decreased by concentrations 3-4 fold below the MIC. Conclusions: These experiments demonstrate the in vitro antimicrobial effect of statins on S. mutans, S.sanguis, and S. salivarius. The data indicate that the statins inhibit growth of the test organisms with MIC’s ranging from 7.8-200 μg/ml. Simvastatin has in vitro efficacy against the specific strains of bacteria used in this study at concentrations slightly less than the observed MIC’s of 15.6-7.8 μg/ml . The MIC’s for atorvastatin, pravastatin, and rosuvastatin are much higher than simvastatin, in the range of 100-200 μg/ml . The effects of statins on biofilm parallels the effect on growth of the bacteria. / Oral Biology

Due to the emergence and dissemination of multidrug resistance, bacterial pathogens have been causing a serious public health problem in recent years. To address the existing drug resistant problem, there is an urgent need to find new antimicrobials, especially those against drug-resistant bacteria. SecA is the central component of Sec-dependent secretion pathway, which is responsible for the secretion of many essential proteins as well as many toxins and virulence factors. Two SecA homologues are indentified in some important Gram-positive pathogens. SecA1 is involved in general secretion pathway and essential for viability, whereas SecA2 contribute to secretion of specific virulence factors. The high conservation among a wide range of bacteria and no human counterpart make SecA homologues attractive targets for exploring novel antimicrobials. We hypothesize that inhibition of these SecA homologues could reduce virulence, inhibit bacteria growth, and kill bacteria. SecA1 and SecA2 from four different species were cloned, purified, and characterized. All these SecA homologues show ATPase activities, thus screening ATPase inhibitors might help to develop new antimicrobials. In this study, three structurally different classes of SecA inhibitors were developed and optimized: 1) Rose Bengal (RB) and RB analogs derived from systematical dissection RB and Structure-Activity relationship (SAR) study; 2) pyrimidine analogs derived from virtual screening based on the ATP binding pocket of EcSecA and SAR study; and 3) bistriazole analogs derived from random screening and SAR study. Several potent SecA inhibitors show promising enzymatic inhibition against SecA homologues as well as bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects. Two major efflux pumps of S. aureus, NorA and MepA, have little negative effect on the antimicrobial activities of SecA inhibitors, suggesting that targeting SecA could by-pass efflux pumps. Moreover, these inhibitors impair the secretion of important toxins of S. aureus and B. anthracis, indicating the inhibition of in vivo SecA function could reduce virulence. Target identification assays confirm that these inhibitors could directly bind to SecA homologues, and specifically identify SecA from whole cell lysate of E. coli and S. aureus, suggesting that these inhibitors are really targeting on SecA. These studies validate that SecA is a good target for development antimicrobials.

Due to the emergence and dissemination of multidrug resistance, bacterial pathogens have been causing a serious public health problem in recent years. To address the existing drug resistant problem, there is an urgent need to find new antimicrobials, especially those against drug-resistant bacteria. SecA is the central component of Sec-dependent secretion pathway, which is responsible for the secretion of many essential proteins as well as many toxins and virulence factors. Two SecA homologues are indentified in some important Gram-positive pathogens. SecA1 is involved in general secretion pathway and essential for viability, whereas SecA2 contribute to secretion of specific virulence factors. The high conservation among a wide range of bacteria and no human counterpart make SecA homologues attractive targets for exploring novel antimicrobials. We hypothesize that inhibition of these SecA homologues could reduce virulence, inhibit bacteria growth, and kill bacteria. SecA1 and SecA2 from four different species were cloned, purified, and characterized. All these SecA homologues show ATPase activities, thus screening ATPase inhibitors might help to develop new antimicrobials. In this study, three structurally different classes of SecA inhibitors were developed and optimized: 1) Rose Bengal (RB) and RB analogs derived from systematical dissection RB and Structure-Activity relationship (SAR) study; 2) pyrimidine analogs derived from virtual screening based on the ATP binding pocket of EcSecA and SAR study; and 3) bistriazole analogs derived from random screening and SAR study. Several potent SecA inhibitors show promising enzymatic inhibition against SecA homologues as well as bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects. Two major efflux pumps of S. aureus, NorA and MepA, have little negative effect on the antimicrobial activities of SecA inhibitors, suggesting that targeting SecA could by-pass efflux pumps. Moreover, these inhibitors impair the secretion of important toxins of S. aureus and B. anthracis, indicating the inhibition of in vivo SecA function could reduce virulence. Target identification assays confirm that these inhibitors could directly bind to SecA homologues, and specifically identify SecA from whole cell lysate of E. coli and S. aureus, suggesting that these inhibitors are really targeting on SecA. These studies validate that SecA is a good target for development antimicrobials.

Some yeast strains secrete extracellular polypeptide toxins known to have potential growth inhibitory activity on sensitive yeast cells. These yeast strains are known as killer yeasts and their toxins are named as killer toxins or killer proteins. Yeast killer proteins are found inhibitory to Gram-positive bacteria in several studies which were based on microbial interactions of the producer strains tested with sensitive strains. K5 type yeast killer protein produced by Pichia anomala NCYC 434 was previously purified and characterized in our laboratory. The protein is glycosilated and has a pI value of 3,7 and molecular mass of 49 kDa, with exo &amp / #946 / -1,3-glucanase activity. Antibacterial activity of the pure K5 type yeast killer protein was tested against 19 clinical isolates of gram-positive bacteria causing skin infections and 2 quality control strains and found to have inhibitory activity on the isolates of Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) and Enterococcus faecium. Toxin MIC and MBC ranges were 32 - 256 &micro / g/ml and 64 - &gt / 512 &micro / g/ml respectively. Cell killing analysis revealed that toxin has a bacteriostatic activity and the inhibitory effect starts between 8. and 12. hours. Regrowth of the bacteria is retarded with the increased dose of the toxin. K5 type yeast killer protein might be used as a topical antibacterial agent with its bacteriostatic activity for skin and wound infections caused by MSSA and Enterococcus faecium with appropriate formulation studies upon the antibacterial spectrum determination of the toxin in this study.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-21T20:42:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Juliana de Oliveira Pimenta.pdf: 2102034 bytes, checksum: c49b6619822775178bcdf4c3da21de3c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-01-18 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This work presents a study on the preparation of titanium dioxide thin films (TiO2) on a substrate of glass slides using the forced impregnation method for control of pressure and temperature. A temperature of 320 ° C with a constant pressure of 1,80 MPa was used to prepare the films; the samples were exposed for 24 hours at this condition. The films were characterized by X-ray diffraction which confirmed the presence of TiO2 on the surface of the substrate and the morphology was analyzed by conventional and field-emission gun scanning electron microscopy. The films of titanium dioxide were used for bacteriological testing. The controlled variables in the bacteriological tests were: the temperature for bacterial growth, growth time, sterilization of the environment and materials and quality of bacterial medium cultures. The bioactivity of TiO2 was tested with Escherichia coli by standard method, with growth in an oven for 24h at 37 °C and analyzed by absorption spectrophotometry with readings in the range of 600nm. The films showed effective bacteriostatic by growth inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli compared to substrates without film. (Σlog Abs = 73,7 with film against Σlog Abs = 75,0 without thin film E ±10-1). / Neste trabalho foi desenvolvido um estudo sobre a preparação de filmes finos de dióxido de titânio (TiO2) em substrato de lamínulas de vidro utilizando o método de impregnação forçada por controle de pressão e de temperatura. Para a preparação dos filmes, utilizou-se a temperatura de 320ºC com pressão constante de 1,80 MPa exposto por período de 24 horas. Os filmes obtidos foram caracterizados por difração de raios X que confirmaram a presença de TiO2 na superfície dos substratos e, a morfologia, analisada por microscopia eletrônica de varredura convencional e por força de campo de emissão. Os filmes de dióxido de titânio foram utilizados para ensaios bacteriológicos. As variáveis controladas nos ensaios bacteriológicos foram à temperatura para o crescimento das bactérias, o tempo de crescimento, a esterilização do ambiente e materiais e a qualidade das culturas de bactérias e meio estéril. A bioatividade do TiO2 foi testada com Escherichia coli por um método padrão, com crescimento por 24 h a 37 ºC e analisada por espectrofotometria de absorção com leituras na faixa de 600 nm. Os filmes mostraram eficiente poder bacteriostático inibindo o crescimento da Escherichia coli se comparado com substratos sem o filme. (Σlog Abs = 73,7 com filme contra Σlog Abs = 75,0 sem filme fino E ±10-1).

Submitted by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2018-10-18T14:39:20Z No. of bitstreams: 3 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) TeseParcial(Cap.I)-RaimundoJunior-PPGQ.pdf: 1178770 bytes, checksum: 74333ca704cd865ec51c2e655679a37f (MD5) Reprodução Não Autorizada.pdf: 47716 bytes, checksum: 0353d988c60b584cfc9978721c498a11 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2018-10-18T14:39:33Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 3 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) TeseParcial(Cap.I)-RaimundoJunior-PPGQ.pdf: 1178770 bytes, checksum: 74333ca704cd865ec51c2e655679a37f (MD5) Reprodução Não Autorizada.pdf: 47716 bytes, checksum: 0353d988c60b584cfc9978721c498a11 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-10-18T14:39:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 3 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) TeseParcial(Cap.I)-RaimundoJunior-PPGQ.pdf: 1178770 bytes, checksum: 74333ca704cd865ec51c2e655679a37f (MD5) Reprodução Não Autorizada.pdf: 47716 bytes, checksum: 0353d988c60b584cfc9978721c498a11 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-05-28 / The Myrtaceae family has 132 genera distributed in 5,760 species present in Australia, Southeast Asia, tropical and temperate America. In Brazil, it presents 1,018 species in 23 genera. Myrcia D.C is one of the largest genera with 282 species present in almost all territory, of which 220 are endemics. Its species are used in Brazilian popular medicine, with emphasis on Myrcia spp., which are used by the traditional population of the Amazon as astringents, diuretics, hypoglycemics, antihemorrhagics, antioxidants and in the treatment of hypertension and ulcers. The present study has evaluated the chemical composition of the essential oils of 13 species of Myrtaceae (Myrcia spp., Marlierea sp. and Calyptranthes sp.) from the Terra Firme ecosystem (Amazon). In addition, the cytotoxic, antibacterial, bacteriostatic, antifungal and larvicidal potentials of these oils have been described. Twenty-seven samples belonging to these thirteen species (18 individuals of 11 species of Myrcia, one of Marlierea caudata and one of Calyptranthes spruceana) were collected from the Adolpho Ducke Forest Reserve, EMBRAPA (Manaus) and the PANC site (Manaus). Its essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation, dried and stored under refrigeration. The chemical characterization was carried out by means of CG-DIC and CG-EM analysis. The Arithmetic Indexes and the Spectral Similarity Indexes were obtained, whose results were compared with those described in the main databases. The mean chemical characterization of these oils was 95%, totaling 336 compounds identified, of which 34 have been abundant (50.7 to 96.17%). The most frequent and, in some cases, the most frequent components are: (E)-caryophyllene, δ-cadinene, Espatulenol, α-Copaene, β-elemene, α-humulene, Caryophyllene oxide, β-selinene, α-muurolene and α–cadinol (42.73% of nonoxygenated sesquiterpenes and 36.98% of oxygenated sesquiterpenes). This chemical variability is common to Myrcia species of other Brazilian ecosystems/biomes. Of the seven pairs of Myrcia individuals collected in distinct periods (dry and rainy), 242 compounds were identified, of which 125 were common, 41 and 76 of which were unique to the rainy and dry periods, respectively. Essential oils of the dry period have exhibit greater chemical variability. In addition, the chemical variability of the essential oils of Myrcia spp. of this ecosystem has been described by 51 cyclization pathways. Of these routes, thirteen have a high frequency (above 50%), four of which are the most prominent ones (Cariofilan, Cadinano, Aromadendrano and Eudesmano). The chemical results of this study have revealed a clear agreement of the chemical composition of Marlierea caudata with the chemistry composition of Myrcia spp.. On the other hand, this observation is not clearly evident for C. spruceana. Moreover, It should be noted that the chemical composition of the essential oils of M. magnoliifolia, M. minutiflora, M. fenestrata, M. amapensis and Marlierea caudata have been described for the first time. As for toxicity to cancer cells (Skmel 3 and ACPO2) and normal cells (MRC5), M. minutiflora presents moderate activity for human melanoma (Skmel 3) and gastric adenocarcinoma (ACPO2) as well as cytotoxic to non-neoplastic fibroblasts (MRC5). M. citrifolia, M. minutiflora, M. paivae and M. magnoliifolia present moderate to high activity against Staphylococcus aureus. M. fallax, M. sylvatica, M. paivae and C. spruceana present moderate activity against Staphylococcus aureus. As for the bacteriostatic action, all species tested have shown moderate to high activity against Pseudomonas aeroginosas. In relation to the insecticidal activity, M. citrifolia, M. bracteata, M. fenestrata, M. amazonica, M. paivae and C. spruceana are active, since after 24 h the mortality percentage of Aedes aegypti larvae was 100% in 25 mg.L- 1 of essential oil. Furthermore, the use of chemometric tools in this study has shown it possible to observe the segregation of samples by major terpene groups and their most influential cyclic pathways, whose substances of major relevance in this model have been (E)-Caryophyllene, δ-Cadinene, and Espatulenol. Its pharmacological activities described in the literature should suggest that they are responsible for the biological results observed in this work. However, novel biological assays with such isolated constituents must be necessary. Therefore, with respect to the chemistry of Myrcia volatile constituents occurring in Terra Firme (Amazonia), the present study has been evidenced very characteristic Amazonian chemotypes and without similarity with other species collected outside the region, which leads us to conclude how much to must be studied from the precious Amazonian biodiversity. / A família Myrtaceae apresenta 132 gêneros distribuídas em 5.760 espécies presentes na Austrália, sudeste da Ásia, América tropical e temperada. No Brasil, apresenta-se com 1018 espécies em 23 gêneros. Myrcia D.C é um dos maiores gêneros com 282 espécies presentes em quase todo território, sendo 220 endêmicas. Suas espécies são empregada na medicina popular brasileira, com destaque para Myrcia spp., as quais são usadas pela população tradicional da Amazônia como adstringentes, diuréticos, hipoglicemicas, anti-hemorrágicas, antioxidantes e no tratamento de hipertensão e úlceras. O presente estudo avalia a composição química dos óleos essenciais de 13 espécies de Myrtaceae (Myrcia spp., Marlierea sp. e Myrciaria sp.) de ecossistema de Terra Firme (Amazônia). Além disso são descritos os potenciais citotóxico, antibacteriano, bacteriostático, antifúngico e larvicida desses óleos. Vinte sete amostras pertencentes a essas treze espécies (18 indivíduos de 11 espécies de Mycia, um indivíduo de Marlierea caudata e outro de Calyptranthes spruceana) foram coletados na Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, na EMBRAPA (Manaus) e no sítio PANC (Manaus). Seus óleos essências foram obtidos por hidrodestilação, secos e armazenado sob refrigeração. A caracterização química ocorreu por meio de análises por CG-DIC e CG-EM, cujos Índices Aritiméticos calculados e de Similaridade Espectral foram comparados com os descritos nas principais bases de dados. A média de caracterização química desses óleos foi de 95%, totalizando 336 substâncias identificadas, das quais 34 são abundantes (50,7 a 96,17%). Os componentes mais frequentes, e em alguns casos majoritários, são: (E)–cariofileno, δ–cadineno, Espatulenol, α–copaeno, β–elemeno, α–humuleno, Óxido de cariofileno, β–selineno, α–muuroleno e α–cadinol, prevalecendo estruturas sesquiterpênicas (42,73% de sesquiterpenos não-oxigenados e 36,98% de sesquiterpenos oxigenados). Essa variabilidade química é comum a espécies de Myrcia de outros ecossistemas/biomas brasileiros. Dos sete pares de indivíduos de Myrcia coletados em períodos distintos (seco e chuvoso), identificou-se 242 substâncias, sendo 125 comuns, com 41 exclusivas do período chuvoso e 76 são exclusivos do períoso seco. Os óleos essenciais do período seco apresentaram uma maior variabilidade química. Além disso, a variabilidade química dos óleos essenciais de Myrcia spp. desse ecossistema pôde ser descrita por 51 vias de ciclização. Dessas vias, treze apresentam elevada frequência (superior a 50%), sendo quatro vias de destaque pela maior ocorrência (Cariofilano, Cadinano, Aromadendrano e Eudesmano). Os resultados químicos desse estudo revelam uma clara concordância de Marlierea caudata com a química de Myrcia spp., porém o mesmo não se evidencia claramente para C. spruceana. Ressalta-se que a composição química dos óleos essenias de M. magnoliifolia, M. minutiflora, M. fenestrata, M. amapensis e Marlierea caudata são descritos pela primeira vez. Quanto à toxicidade frente a células cancerígenas (Skmel 3 e ACPO2) e normais (MRC5), M. minutiflora apresenta atividade moderada para melanoma humano (Skmel 3) e adenocarcinoma gástrico (ACPO2), bem como citotóxica para fibroblastos nãoneoplásicos (MRC5). M. amazonica e M. fenestrata também apresentam atividade moderada para Skmel 3. Quanto ao potencial antimicrobiano e bacteriostático, M. citrifolia, M. minutiflora, M. paivae e M. magnoliifolia apresentam atividade moderada a elevada frente a Staphylococcus aureus. M. fallax, M. sylvatica, M. paivae e C. spruceana apresentam atividade moderada frente a Staphylococcus aureus. Quanto a ação bacteriostática, todas as espécies ensaiadas apresentam atividade moderada a elevada frente a Pseudomonas aeroginosas. Em relação a atividade inseticida, M. citrifolia, M. bracteata, M. fenestrata, M. amazonica, M. paivae e C. spruceana são ativas, pois após 24 h o percentual de mortalidade das larvas de Aedes aegypti é de 100% em 25 mg.L-1 de óleo essencial. A aplicação de ferramentas quimiométricas nesse estudo possibilitou observar a segregação das amostras por grupos terpênicos majoritários e suas vias de ciclização mais influentes, cujas substâncias de maior relevância nesse modelo são: (E)-cariofileno, δ–cadineno e Espatulenol. Suas atividades farmacológicas descritas na literatura sugerem serem os responsáveis pelos resultados biológicos observados nesse trabalho. Contudo, novos ensaios biológicos com tais constituintes isolados talvez sejam necessários. Portanto, a respeito da química dos constituintes voláteis de Myrcia ocorrentes em Terra Firme (Amazônia), o presente estudo evidência quimiotipos amazônicos bem característicos e sem similaridade com outras espécies coletadas fora da região, o que nos leva a concluir o quanto ainda há a ser estudado a partir da preciosa biodiversidade amazônica.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(農学) / 乙第12820号 / 論農博第2793号 / 新制||農||1025(附属図書館) / 学位論文||H26||N4815(農学部図書室) / 31307 / 京都大学農学研究科農学専攻 / (主査)教授 松村 康生, 教授 裏出 令子, 教授 安達 修二 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Sucralose is a zero calorie sweetener developed and manufactured by Tate and Lyle Sweetener Company in the 1980’s. They sell the sweetener compounded with maltodextrin and dextrose under the brand name Splenda®. Sucralose was developed as a low cost artificial sweetener that is non-metabolizable in humans and can withstand changes in pH and temperature. It is not degraded by the waste water treatment process. Since the molecule can withstand heat, acidification and microbial degradation it is accumulating in the environment, and has been found in waste water, estuaries, rivers and the Gulf Stream. The highest concentration of environmental sucralose detected to date is 300 ng/L (Torres et al., 2009). Our lab has isolated six bacterial species from areas that may have been exposed to sucralose, given that sucralose has been detected throughout the aquatic environment (Mead et al., 2009). These isolates were cultured in the presence of sucralose looking for potential sucralose metabolism or growth acceleration. Sucralose was found to be nonnutritive, and we found bacteriostatic effects on all six isolates. This inhibition was directly proportional to the concentration of sucralose exposure. The amount of the growth inhibition appears to be species specific. The bacteriostatic effect may be due to a decrease in sucrose uptake by bacteria exposed to sucralose. We have determined that sucralose inhibits invertase and sucrose permease. These enzymes cannot catalyze hydrolysis or be effective in transmembrane transport of the sugar substitute. As sucralose builds up in the environment we must consider it a contaminant due to its bacteriostatic effect. Sucralose may also destabilize or shift the compositions of the bacterial communities in microenvironments such as the mammalian gut.

PhD (Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal Universtiy of Technology / The genus Tulbaghia has been used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments such as fever, earache, tuberculosis and esophageal cancer. However, there is limited scientific evidence to support its use. Therefore the objectives of this study were to perform phytochemical analysis, investigate the antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, immunomodulatory activities and toxicity of crude acetone and water extracts from selected Tulbaghia species. Standard methods were used for preliminary phytochemical analysis. The total phenolic content of the plant extracts was determined using the folin ciocalteu method whereas the total flavonoids were determined by using the aluminium chloride colorimetric method. DPPH and ABTS assays were used to evaluate the antioxidant activity. The antimicrobial activity was assessed by agar well diffusion, microtiter dilution and time kill assays. For anticancer studies, the antiproliferative activity of the extracts was evaluated using the MTT assay on Hkesc-1 and KB cells. Morphological changes of the cancer cells treated with extracts were examined using light microscopy. Induction of apoptosis was assessed using fluorescence microscopy and acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining. Flow cytometry analysis was conducted to examine the multicaspase activity and cell cycle arrest. For immunomodulatory activity, the Greiss reagent and Luminex cytokine assays were used to determine the effect of the extracts on NO production and the concentration of the cytokines in the treated cells, respectively. Toxicity of selected Tulbaghia species was examined by investigating the effect of the extracts on the metabolic activity and cell membrane integrity on the treated RAW264.7 cells using the MTT and LDH assays, respectively. The zebrafish assay was used to evaluate the embryotoxicity and teratogenic effects of crude acetone and water extracts of T. violacea at 24 h intervals for 96 h post fertilisation (hpf). The percentage mortality, hatchability and heart rate were examined. Phytochemical screening of eight Tulbaghia species demonstrated the presence of flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, terpenoids, saponins and steroids. The amount of total phenol and flavonoid content varied in different plant extracts ranging from 4.50 to 11.10 milligrams gallic acid equivalent per gram (mg GAE/g) of fresh material and 3.04 to 9.65 milligrams quercetin equivalent per gram (mg QE/g) of fresh material respectively. The IC50 values based on DPPH and ABTS for T. alliacea (0.06 and 0.06 mg/mL) and T. violacea (0.08 and 0.03 mg/mL) were generally lower showing potential antioxidant activities. For antimicrobial activity, the acetone extracts of T. acutiloba, T. alliacea, T. leucantha, T. ludwigiana, T. natalensis and T. simmleri showed moderate antimicrobial activity against all test organisms while the water extracts showed moderate to no activity. One species, T. cernua, showed poor activity against all the tested microbes. The acetone and water extracts of T. violacea showed the greatest antibacterial and antifungal activity against all the tested microorganisms with minimum inhibitory concentration ranging from 0.1 mg/mL to 3.13 mg/mL. The acetone extracts of T. violacea also exhibited both bacteriostatic/fungistatic and bactericidal/fungicidal activity depending on the incubation time and concentration of the extract. The bactericidal/fungicidal activity was observed at x2 MIC. The results for anticancer activity showed that treatment of Hkesc-1 cells with acetone and water crude extracts had anti-proliferative activity with IC50 values of 0.4 mg/mL and 1.625 mg/mL, respectively while KB had 0.2 mg/mL and 1 mg/mL, respectively. Morphological changes such as blebbing, cell shrinkage and rounding were observed in the treated cells suggesting that apoptosis was taking place. AOEB staining showed that the level of apoptosis was dependent on the concentration of the extracts. The activation of multicaspase activity in both Hkesc-1 and KB treated cells was also concentration dependent leading to cell death by apoptosis and the induction of cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase. Immunomodulatory activity results indicated that cell viability was above 80% when concentrations of 50 µg/mL or less of both acetone and water crude was used. Treatment with the acetone extract had no significant effect (p>0.05) on the LPS induced NO production in RAW264.7 cells except at 50 µg/mL where significant inhibition was observed. The water extract had no significant effect (p>0.05) on NO production at all the concentrations. Treatment of LPS–induced RAW264.7 cells with acetone extract stimulated the production of IL-1α, IL-6 and TNF-α, but had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on IL-1β. On the other hand, treatment with the water extracts stimulated the production of IL-1α, IL-6 but had no significant effect (p>0.05) on TNF-α and IL-1β. Treatment of LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells with the acetone extract had very little stimulatory effect on IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 and no significant effect on IL-10 whereas for the water extract a significant stimulatory effect was only observed for IL-4 after 48 h of treatment. High concentrations (>10000 pg/mL) of MCP-1, MIP1-α, MIP1-β, MIP-2, GCSF, GM-CSF, RANTES and IP-10 were also observed in acetone and water extract treated RAW264.7 cells. For toxicity studies, acetone and aqueous crude leaf extracts from T. alliacea, T. simmleri, and T. violacea had a significant inhibitory (p<0.05) effect on the RAW264.7 cells after 48h treatment. Acetone extracts from T. alliacea, T. simmleri and T. violacea resulted in IC50 values of 0.48 mg/mL, 0.72 mg/mL and 0.1 mg/mL, respectively. Treatment with water extracts showed minimal toxic effect indicated by higher IC50 values of 0.95 mg/mL, 2.49 mg/mL and 0.3 mg/mL for T. alliacea, T. simmleri and T. violacea, respectively. The LDH release by macrophages after 24 h treatment with acetone extracts was observed to be concentration dependent while treatment with water extracts did not induce LDH release. The zebra fish assay showed a lethal dose (LD50) for the T. violacea acetone crude extract of 20 μg/mL whereas that for water extract was 85 μg/mL. The observed teratogenic effects included scoliosis, edema of the pericardial cavity, retarded yolk resorption, hook-like/bent tail and shorter body length. In conclusion, the results from this study indicate that the extracts from the eight Tulbaghia species examined contain phytochemicals that may have the antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory properties. Extracts from T. violacea were observed to be the most potent. This study thus supports the use of T. violacea in treating bacterial and fungal infections in traditional medicine. The results of this study also confirm the anticancer potential of T. violacea. The immunomodulatory activity of the acetone and water extracts from T. violacea indicated a dominantly pro-inflammatory activity. Traditional medicine prepared form T. violacea may be of benefit to individuals with weak immune systems. The toxicity of selected Tulbaghia species was observed to be concentration, extract and time dependent. Therefore, traditional medicine prepared from Tulbaghia extracts should be taken with caution preferably in small doses over a short period of time. Future studies will focus on the identification of the bioactive compound(s) responsible for the antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory activities.