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Nickel contaminated wastewater from plating industries is a major environmental concern. Current treatment methods are often expensive and can also create additional problems. Biosorption is an alternative treatment method that uses inexpensive biomaterials to sequester metals from aqueous solutions. In this study, acid washed barley straw (AWBS) was used for adsorbing nickel ions (Ni2+) from simulated nickel plating wastewater. The adsorption process was rapid and the equilibrium was reached in about an hour. An increase in the initial nickel concentration increased the equilibrium nickel uptake, and the maximum uptake was found to be 8.45 mg/g of AWBS when the initial nickel concentration was1000 mg/L at pH 5. Nickel adsorption was favorable at room temperature than 5oC and 40oC, better adsorption rate and equilibrium uptake was observed at 23oC. Increasing the pH from 3 to 7 increased the equilibrium nickel uptake and the maximum uptake was observed at pH 7, whilst the initial nickel ion concentration was 100 mg/L. The Freundlich isotherm model exhibited better fit with the equilibrium data than the Langmuir equation. Nickel was desorbed using hydrochloric acid solution at pH 2 and the desorption efficiency was 86%. FT-IR studies indicated the participation of hydroxyl, carboxyl and amide groups from cellulose, hemi-cellulose, protein and lignin of barley straw.

Nickel contaminated wastewater from plating industries is a major environmental concern. Current treatment methods are often expensive and can also create additional problems. Biosorption is an alternative treatment method that uses inexpensive biomaterials to sequester metals from aqueous solutions. In this study, acid washed barley straw (AWBS) was used for adsorbing nickel ions (Ni2+) from simulated nickel plating wastewater. The adsorption process was rapid and the equilibrium was reached in about an hour. An increase in the initial nickel concentration increased the equilibrium nickel uptake, and the maximum uptake was found to be 8.45 mg/g of AWBS when the initial nickel concentration was1000 mg/L at pH 5. Nickel adsorption was favorable at room temperature than 5oC and 40oC, better adsorption rate and equilibrium uptake was observed at 23oC. Increasing the pH from 3 to 7 increased the equilibrium nickel uptake and the maximum uptake was observed at pH 7, whilst the initial nickel ion concentration was 100 mg/L. The Freundlich isotherm model exhibited better fit with the equilibrium data than the Langmuir equation. Nickel was desorbed using hydrochloric acid solution at pH 2 and the desorption efficiency was 86%. FT-IR studies indicated the participation of hydroxyl, carboxyl and amide groups from cellulose, hemi-cellulose, protein and lignin of barley straw.

Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania sesban in dry form were fed as supplements to goats feeding on a low quality basal diet of barley straw. Each browse supplement was fed at four levels: 0 %, 0.83 % liveweight (LW), 1.66 % LW and at ad libitum. The intakes of dry matter (DM) and organic matter (OM), DM and OM digestibility, nitrogen (N) digestibility and balance, and liveweight gain were evaluated during a 5 week trial. For goats offered both leucaena and sesbania there was no significant (p<0.05) difference in DM or OM intakes between 0.83 % LW and 1.66 % LW levels of browse supplementation. When both lecaena and sesbania were offered ad libitum the DM and OM intakes were significantly (p<0.05) lower than for either 0.83 % LW or 1.66 % LW level of supplementation. Feeding both leucaena and sesbania increased the DM and OM digestibility coefficients significantly over thos of the controls. The growth rates for goats supplemented with leucaena at various levels were not significantly different from each other. For the goats offered sesbania at ad libitum, their growth rates were significantly lower than for those fed sesbania at either 0.83 % LW or 1.66 % LW. The apparent digestibility of nitrogen (ADN) was not significantly different among leucaena supplemented treatments. For goats offered sesbania, the ADN was significantly higher than for the controls. The ability of browse supplements to increase intakes and digestibility of both dry matter and organic matter is discussed.

N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide has shown a positive effect for the pretreatmentof lignocelluloses. Pretreatment by NMMO was developed to enhance thedigestibility of lignocellulosic biomass.Barely straw and forest residue were pretreated by N-methylmorpholine-Noxide(NMMO) prior to anaerobic digestion. The effectiveness of NMMOtreatmenton straw and forest residue was examined as well as the recycling andreuse of NMMO for the next pretreatment process. During the first experimentalseries pretreatments were performed at 90 °C for 3h and 30h, followed bydigestion of the pretreated material for 41 days. Low methane yield was found inthese experiments due to high organic loading rate. In the second series therecycling and reuse of NMMO was investigated on straw. The pretreatmentswere carried out at 90 °C for 30 hr and the recycling and reuse were performedin three times. After treatments with fresh, as well as 1, 2, 3 times recycledNMMO methane yield of 0.45, 0.42, 0.38 and 0.4 Nm3/kg VS were obtained. / Program: Masterutbildning i energi- och materialåtervinning - industriell bioteknik

Materiais lignocelulósicos, como a palha de cevada, são fontes de baixo custo com potenciais aplicações em bioprocessos. A fração hemicelulósica destes materiais pode ser hidrolisada usando-se ácidos minerais, para a liberação de seu principal açúcar componente, a xilose que é substrato para a bioprodução de xilitol. Já a fração celulósica pode ser deslignificada fazendo uso de álcalis e posteriormente hidrolisada com ácidos minerais para a liberação da glicose. O principal objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar economicamente a bioprodução de xilitol a partir da fração hemicelulósica da palha de cevada. A caracterização química da palha de cevada revelou a presença de 38,55% de celulose, 21,41% de hemicelulose e 19,90% de lignina. Após a etapa de caracterização a palha foi hidrolisada utilizando-se ácido sulfúrico para extração da xilose, empregando-se um planejamento fatorial 24-1. As melhores condições de hidrólise foram a uma temperatura de 120ºC, concentração ácida de 2,6%, tempo de reação de 20 minutos e relação sólido: líquido de 1:13,5. Nessas condições obteve-se um rendimento de extração de xilose da ordem de 84,38%. A celolignina resultante desse processo foi submetida a uma nova hidrólise de acordo com planejamento experimental 24-1 sendo que as melhores condições de hidrólise para a máxima eficiência de extração de glicose de 67,96% foi a uma temperatura de 179ºC, concentração ácida de 3%, tempo de reação de 30 minutos e relação sólido: líquido de 1:8. Após a realização das hidrólises, o hidrolisado hemicelulósico foi submetido à destoxificação para eliminação dos compostos inibitórios ao metabolismo microbiano e sua posterior fermentação com a levedura Candida guilliermondii enquanto o hidrolisado celulósico rico em glicose foi utilizado para suplementar o meio de fermentação constituído do hidrolisado hemicelulósico uma vez que a glicose foi um dos parâmetros nutricionais avaliados no planejamento fatorial 26-2 utilizado para as fermentações realizadas em frascos Erlenmeyer. Estes experimentos foram realizados por 72 horas e as melhores condições de cultivo determinadas pelo modelo foram: 3,0 g/L de sulfato de amônio, 1,0 g/L de cloreto de cálcio, 20,0 g/L de solução de extrato farelo de arroz e hidrolisado hemicelulósico contendo o teor de 60 g/L de xilose sendo que a concentração inicial de células em cada frasco foi de 1,0 g/L. Nestas condições obteve-se um consumo de xilose e eficiência de conversão de 96,59 e 59,98%, respectivamente, sendo a produtividade volumétrica de xilitol de 0,48 g/L.h. A fim de avaliar o efeito da disponibilidade de oxigênio sobre a bioconversão de xilose em xilitol foram realizadas fermentações empregando-se as melhores condições de cultivo obtidas em frascos agitados em reator de 1L onde os parâmetros agitação e aeração foram estudados segundo um planejamento fatorial 22. De acordo com os resultados os máximos valores de produção, produtividade volumétrica e fator de conversão de xilose em xilitol foram 51,28 g/L, 0,71 g/L.h e 0,88 g/g, respectivamente, quando a agitação foi de 200 rpm e aeração de 0,9 vvm (KLa&#8773;18h-1) em 72 horas de fermentação. As condições de fermentação estabelecidas durante a utilização de reator de 1 L foram então empregadas para avaliar o processo a partir de um reator de maior capacidade (16 L), utilizando como critério de ampliação o KLa. Os valores de produção, produtividade volumétrica e fator de conversão de xilose em xilitol foram respectivamente 55,63 g/L, 0,77 g/L.h e 0,91 g/g, correspondendo a eficiência de conversão de 99,23%. O caldo fermentado resultante desta fermentação foi submetido à centrifugação e posterior clarificação. Por fim foi realizado um estudo econômico em cada etapa do processo considerando os equipamentos, os meios de cultivo empregados e reagentes, consumo de energia elétrica e água utilizados no processo, bem como a depreciação dos equipamentos. Após este estudo constatou-se que o valor para o xilitol produzido por via biotecnológica a partir do hidrolisado hemicelulósico de palha de cevada é de R$ 1.389,05. / Lignocellulosic materials, such as barley straw, are sources of low cost and with potential applications in bioprocesses. The hemicellulosic fraction of these materials can be hydrolyzed using mineral acids to release xylose, its major sugar component, which is substrate to bioproduction of xylitol. The cellulosic fraction can be delignified using alkalis followed by treatment with mineral acids to release glucose. The main objective of this research was to evaluate the economic bioproduction of xylitol from hemicellulosic fraction of barley straw. Chemical characterization of barley straw revealed the presence of 38.55% cellulose, 21.41% hemicellulose and 19.90% lignin. After the characterization stage, the barley straw was hydrolyzed with sulphuric acid for the extraction of xylose using a 24-1 factorial design. The optimum condition was temperature 120ºC, acid concentration 2.6%, reaction time 20 min and solid:liquid ratio 1:13.5. Under this condition the xylose extraction yield was about 84.38%. The celolignin was then submitted to a new hydrolyze according to a 24-1 factorial design and the best condition for maximum glucose extraction yield (67.96%) was temperature 179ºC, acid concentration 3%, reaction time 30 min and solid:liquid ratio 1:8. After hydrolysis, the hemicellulosic hydrolysate was submitted to a detoxification step to eliminate the compounds inhibitory to the microbial metabolism and fermentation with the yeast Candida guilliermondii while the cellulosic hydrolysate, rich in glucose, was used to supplement the fermentation medium consisting of the hemicellulosic hydrolysate as glucose was one of the nutritional parameters evaluated in the factorial design 26-2 employed to the fermentations carried out in Erlenmeyer flasks. These experiments were conducted for 72 h and the best culture conditions determined by the model were: 3.0 g/L ammonium sulfate, 1.0 g/L calcium chloride, 20.0 g/L solution of rice straw and hemicellulosic hydrolysate containing 60 g/L xylose. The initial cell concentration in each flask was 1.0 g/L. Under this condition the xylose consumption and conversion efficiency was 96.59 and 59.98%, respectively. The volumetric productivity of xylitol was 0.48 g/L.h. To evaluate the effect of oxygen availability on the bioconversion of xylose into xylitol It was realized fermentations employing the best culture conditions obtaining under agitation in 1L reaction where the parameters agitation and aeration were studied using a 22 factorial design. According to the results the maximum values of production, volumetric productivity and the factor of xylose concentration into xylitol were 51,28 g/L, 0.71 g/L.h and 0.88 g/g, respectively, when the agitation was 200 rpm and aeration 0.9 vvm (KLa&#8773;18h-1) in 72 h fermentation. The fermentation conditions established during the utilization of 1 L reactor were then employed to evaluate the process from a reactor of higher capacity (16 L), and KLa was use as criteria to scale up. Production, volumetric productivity and the factor of xylose conversion into xylitol were 55.63 g/L, 0.77 g/L.h and 0.91 g/g, respectively, corresponding to a conversion efficiency of 99.23%. The fermented broth obtained from this fermentation was centrifuged and clarified. An economic study was realized for each stage of the process, considering equipment, reagents of the culture media, electric energy consumption and water utilized in the process, as well as equipment. It was found that the value of biotechnological produced xylitol from hemicellulosic hydrolysate of barley straw is R$ 1.389.05.

Materiais lignocelulósicos, como a palha de cevada, são fontes de baixo custo com potenciais aplicações em bioprocessos. A fração hemicelulósica destes materiais pode ser hidrolisada usando-se ácidos minerais, para a liberação de seu principal açúcar componente, a xilose que é substrato para a bioprodução de xilitol. Já a fração celulósica pode ser deslignificada fazendo uso de álcalis e posteriormente hidrolisada com ácidos minerais para a liberação da glicose. O principal objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar economicamente a bioprodução de xilitol a partir da fração hemicelulósica da palha de cevada. A caracterização química da palha de cevada revelou a presença de 38,55% de celulose, 21,41% de hemicelulose e 19,90% de lignina. Após a etapa de caracterização a palha foi hidrolisada utilizando-se ácido sulfúrico para extração da xilose, empregando-se um planejamento fatorial 24-1. As melhores condições de hidrólise foram a uma temperatura de 120ºC, concentração ácida de 2,6%, tempo de reação de 20 minutos e relação sólido: líquido de 1:13,5. Nessas condições obteve-se um rendimento de extração de xilose da ordem de 84,38%. A celolignina resultante desse processo foi submetida a uma nova hidrólise de acordo com planejamento experimental 24-1 sendo que as melhores condições de hidrólise para a máxima eficiência de extração de glicose de 67,96% foi a uma temperatura de 179ºC, concentração ácida de 3%, tempo de reação de 30 minutos e relação sólido: líquido de 1:8. Após a realização das hidrólises, o hidrolisado hemicelulósico foi submetido à destoxificação para eliminação dos compostos inibitórios ao metabolismo microbiano e sua posterior fermentação com a levedura Candida guilliermondii enquanto o hidrolisado celulósico rico em glicose foi utilizado para suplementar o meio de fermentação constituído do hidrolisado hemicelulósico uma vez que a glicose foi um dos parâmetros nutricionais avaliados no planejamento fatorial 26-2 utilizado para as fermentações realizadas em frascos Erlenmeyer. Estes experimentos foram realizados por 72 horas e as melhores condições de cultivo determinadas pelo modelo foram: 3,0 g/L de sulfato de amônio, 1,0 g/L de cloreto de cálcio, 20,0 g/L de solução de extrato farelo de arroz e hidrolisado hemicelulósico contendo o teor de 60 g/L de xilose sendo que a concentração inicial de células em cada frasco foi de 1,0 g/L. Nestas condições obteve-se um consumo de xilose e eficiência de conversão de 96,59 e 59,98%, respectivamente, sendo a produtividade volumétrica de xilitol de 0,48 g/L.h. A fim de avaliar o efeito da disponibilidade de oxigênio sobre a bioconversão de xilose em xilitol foram realizadas fermentações empregando-se as melhores condições de cultivo obtidas em frascos agitados em reator de 1L onde os parâmetros agitação e aeração foram estudados segundo um planejamento fatorial 22. De acordo com os resultados os máximos valores de produção, produtividade volumétrica e fator de conversão de xilose em xilitol foram 51,28 g/L, 0,71 g/L.h e 0,88 g/g, respectivamente, quando a agitação foi de 200 rpm e aeração de 0,9 vvm (KLa&#8773;18h-1) em 72 horas de fermentação. As condições de fermentação estabelecidas durante a utilização de reator de 1 L foram então empregadas para avaliar o processo a partir de um reator de maior capacidade (16 L), utilizando como critério de ampliação o KLa. Os valores de produção, produtividade volumétrica e fator de conversão de xilose em xilitol foram respectivamente 55,63 g/L, 0,77 g/L.h e 0,91 g/g, correspondendo a eficiência de conversão de 99,23%. O caldo fermentado resultante desta fermentação foi submetido à centrifugação e posterior clarificação. Por fim foi realizado um estudo econômico em cada etapa do processo considerando os equipamentos, os meios de cultivo empregados e reagentes, consumo de energia elétrica e água utilizados no processo, bem como a depreciação dos equipamentos. Após este estudo constatou-se que o valor para o xilitol produzido por via biotecnológica a partir do hidrolisado hemicelulósico de palha de cevada é de R$ 1.389,05. / Lignocellulosic materials, such as barley straw, are sources of low cost and with potential applications in bioprocesses. The hemicellulosic fraction of these materials can be hydrolyzed using mineral acids to release xylose, its major sugar component, which is substrate to bioproduction of xylitol. The cellulosic fraction can be delignified using alkalis followed by treatment with mineral acids to release glucose. The main objective of this research was to evaluate the economic bioproduction of xylitol from hemicellulosic fraction of barley straw. Chemical characterization of barley straw revealed the presence of 38.55% cellulose, 21.41% hemicellulose and 19.90% lignin. After the characterization stage, the barley straw was hydrolyzed with sulphuric acid for the extraction of xylose using a 24-1 factorial design. The optimum condition was temperature 120ºC, acid concentration 2.6%, reaction time 20 min and solid:liquid ratio 1:13.5. Under this condition the xylose extraction yield was about 84.38%. The celolignin was then submitted to a new hydrolyze according to a 24-1 factorial design and the best condition for maximum glucose extraction yield (67.96%) was temperature 179ºC, acid concentration 3%, reaction time 30 min and solid:liquid ratio 1:8. After hydrolysis, the hemicellulosic hydrolysate was submitted to a detoxification step to eliminate the compounds inhibitory to the microbial metabolism and fermentation with the yeast Candida guilliermondii while the cellulosic hydrolysate, rich in glucose, was used to supplement the fermentation medium consisting of the hemicellulosic hydrolysate as glucose was one of the nutritional parameters evaluated in the factorial design 26-2 employed to the fermentations carried out in Erlenmeyer flasks. These experiments were conducted for 72 h and the best culture conditions determined by the model were: 3.0 g/L ammonium sulfate, 1.0 g/L calcium chloride, 20.0 g/L solution of rice straw and hemicellulosic hydrolysate containing 60 g/L xylose. The initial cell concentration in each flask was 1.0 g/L. Under this condition the xylose consumption and conversion efficiency was 96.59 and 59.98%, respectively. The volumetric productivity of xylitol was 0.48 g/L.h. To evaluate the effect of oxygen availability on the bioconversion of xylose into xylitol It was realized fermentations employing the best culture conditions obtaining under agitation in 1L reaction where the parameters agitation and aeration were studied using a 22 factorial design. According to the results the maximum values of production, volumetric productivity and the factor of xylose concentration into xylitol were 51,28 g/L, 0.71 g/L.h and 0.88 g/g, respectively, when the agitation was 200 rpm and aeration 0.9 vvm (KLa&#8773;18h-1) in 72 h fermentation. The fermentation conditions established during the utilization of 1 L reactor were then employed to evaluate the process from a reactor of higher capacity (16 L), and KLa was use as criteria to scale up. Production, volumetric productivity and the factor of xylose conversion into xylitol were 55.63 g/L, 0.77 g/L.h and 0.91 g/g, respectively, corresponding to a conversion efficiency of 99.23%. The fermented broth obtained from this fermentation was centrifuged and clarified. An economic study was realized for each stage of the process, considering equipment, reagents of the culture media, electric energy consumption and water utilized in the process, as well as equipment. It was found that the value of biotechnological produced xylitol from hemicellulosic hydrolysate of barley straw is R$ 1.389.05.

Abstract Biomass conversion methods represent bioeconomic solutions for the sustainable production of value added commodities (chemicals and materials) as well as for energy purposes, either in solid (pellets), liquid (transport fuels) or gaseous (combustion gases e.g. biomethane) form. Lignocellulosic biomass as a renewable source available in immense quantity, is considered to be one of the most promising natural sources, with high potential in the replacement of conventional transportation fuels and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. This thesis provides new insights into mechanocatalysis, which as yet is a novel technique in catalytic biomass conversion. The mechanocatalytic approach combines chemical catalysis and mechanical assisted processing driven by ball milling. Lignocellulosic barley straw was impregnated or merely mixed with the catalyst (formic acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, oxalic acid dihydrate and potassium pyrosulfate) and ball milled under various conditions yielding the selective depolymerization of lignocellulose into water-soluble xylo-oligosaccharides. Subsequent hydrolysis at moderate temperatures resulted in the formation of valuable reducing sugars, mainly xylose, galactose, arabinose and glucose, which constitute the basic materials for transportation fuel and chemical production. Reducing sugar release of 53.4 wt% with low by-product formation was observed within short milling durations using sulfuric acid as a catalyst in mechanocatalysis. Likewise, oxalic acid dihydrate and potassium pyrosulfate as a novel catalyst, successfully converted barley straw to reducing sugars (42.4 wt% and 39.7 wt%, respectively), however longer milling durations were required. In comparison, lower saccharification (&lt;10 wt%) was obtained by employing formic acid and acetic acid in mechanocatalysis. Harsh milling conditions initiated a temperature increase within the reaction vessel resulting in enhanced sugar release. Likewise, greater sugar release was observed with increased catalyst amount and acidity. The results revealed that the balance of these factors is crucial for efficient catalytic conversion of barley straw. / Tiivistelmä Biomassan konvertointimenetelmät mahdollistavat biotalouden hengen mukaisesti uusia ratkaisuja kemikaalien ja materiaalien kestävään tuotantoon sekä biomassan energiakäyttöön eri muodoissa (kuten pelletit, biopolttoaineet ja biokaasu). Lignoselluloosapohjaista, uusiutuvaa biomassaa, kuten tässä työssä tutkittua ohran olkea, on runsaasti saatavilla. Lignoselluloosa onkin yksi lupaavimmista raaka-aineista korvaamaan fossiilisia polttoaineita ja vähentämään kasvihuonekaasupäästöjä. Väitöskirjatutkimus antaa uutta tietoa ohran oljen mekaanis–katalyyttisestä käsittelystä, mikä on suhteellisen uusi menetelmä biomassan katalyyttisessä muokkauksessa. Menetelmässä yhdistetään kemiallinen katalyysi ja mekaaninen muokkaus (jauhatus) kuulamyllyllä. Lignoselluloosa (ohran olki) impregnoitiin tai sekoitettiin tutkitun katalyytin (muurahaishappo, etikkahappo, rikkihappo, oksaalihappodihydraatti, kaliumpyrosulfaatti) kanssa ja käsiteltiin erilaisissa mekaanis–katalyyttisissä olosuhteissa. Lignoselluloosan selektiivinen depolymerointi muodosti vesiliukoisia oligosakkarideja ja edelleen hydrolyysin kautta pelkistyneitä sokereita (pääasiassa ksyloosia, galaktoosia, arabinoosia ja glukoosia), joita voidaan käyttää biopolttoaineiden ja -kemikaalien valmistuksessa. Tutkimuksen tulosten perusteella rikkihappokatalyytillä saatiin 53,4 massa-% ohran oljen sisältämistä pelkistyneistä sokereista vapautettua lyhyillä käsittelyajoilla. Lisäksi sivutuotteiden muodostuminen oli vähäistä. Vastaavasti oksaalihappodihydraatti (sokerisaanto 42,4 massa-%) ja kaliumpyrosulfaatti (sokerisaanto 39,7 massa-%) toimivat uusina katalyytteinä hyvin, mutta vaativat rikkihappokatalyyttiä pidemmät jauhatusajat. Sen sijaan muurahaishapolla ja etikkahapolla sokerisaanto oli erittäin alhainen (alle 10 massa-%) mekaanis–katalyyttisessä käsittelyssä. Tutkimuksessa todettiin, että voimakas jauhatus vaikutti selkeästi reaktiolämpötilan nousuun käsittelyn aikana, mikä edisti korkeampaa sokerisaantoa. Vastaavasti sokerisaantoa voitiin parantaa katalyyttimäärällä ja happamuudella. Tulokset osoittavat, että näiden muuttujien tasapaino on ratkaisevaa ohran oljen tehokkaan katalyyttisen muuntamisen kannalta.

The two main sources of biomass for energy generation are purpose-grown energy crops and waste materials. Energy crops, such as Miscanthus and short rotation woody crops (coppice), are cultivated mainly for energy purposes and are associated with the food vs. fuels debate, which is concerned with whether land should be used for fuel rather than food production. The use of residues from agriculture, such as barley, canola, oat and wheat straw, for energy generation circumvents the food vs. fuel dilemma and adds value to existing crops. In fact, these residues represent an abundant, inexpensive and readily available source of renewable lignocellulosic biomass. In order to reduce industrys operational cost as well as to meet the requirement of raw material for biofuel production, biomass must be processed and handled in an efficient manner. Due to its high moisture content, irregular shape and size, and low bulk density, biomass is very difficult to handle, transport, store, and utilize in its original form. Densification of biomass into durable compacts is an effective solution to these problems and it can reduce material waste. Upon densification, many agricultural biomass materials, especially those from straw and stover, result in a poorly formed pellets or compacts that are more often dusty, difficult to handle and costly to manufacture. This is caused by lack of complete understanding on the natural binding characteristics of the components that make up biomass. An integrated approach to postharvest processing (chopping, grinding and steam explosion), and feasibility study on lab-scale and pilot scale densification of non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw was successfully established to develop baseline data and correlations, that assisted in performing overall specific energy analysis. A new procedure was developed to rapidly characterize the lignocellulosic composition of agricultural biomass using the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In addition, baseline knowledge was created to determine the physical and frictional properties of non-treated and steam exploded agricultural biomass grinds. Particle size reduction of agricultural biomass was performed to increase the total surface area, pore size of the material and the number of contact points for inter-particle bonding in the compaction process. Predictive regression equations having higher R2 values were developed that could be used by biorefineries to perform economic feasibility of establishing a processing plant. Specific energy required by a hammer mill to grind non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw showed a negative power correlation with hammer mill screen sizes. Rapid and cost effective quantification of lignocellulosic components (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin) of agricultural biomass (barley, canola, oat and wheat) is essential to determine the effect of various pre-treatments (such as steam explosion) on biomass used as feedstock for the biofuel industry. A novel procedure to quantitatively predict lignocellulosic components of non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw was developed using Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Regression equations having R2 values of 0.89, 0.99 and 0.98 were developed to predict the cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin compounds of biomass, respectively. The average absolute difference in predicted and measured cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in agricultural biomass was 7.5%, 2.5%, and 3.8%, respectively. Application of steam explosion pre-treatment on agricultural straw significantly altered the physical and frictional properties, which has direct significance on designing new and modifying existing bins, hoppers and feeders for handling and storage of straw for biofuel industry. As a result, regression equations were developed to enhance process efficiency by eliminating the need for experimental procedure while designing and manufacturing of new handling equipment. Compaction of low bulk density agricultural biomass is a critical and desirable operation for sustainable and economic availability of feedstock for the biofuel industry. A comprehensive study of the compression characteristics (density of pellet and total specific energy required for compression) of ground non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw obtained from three hammer mill screen sizes of 6.4, 3.2 and 1.6 mm at 10% moisture content (wb) was conducted. Four preset pressures of 31.6, 63.2, 94.7 and 138.9 MPa, were applied using an Instron testing machine to compress samples in a cylindrical die. It was determined that the applied pressure (60.4%) was the most significant factor affecting pellet density followed by the application of steam explosion pre-treatment (39.4%). Similarly, the type of biomass (47.1%) is the most significant factor affecting durability followed by the application of pre-treatment (38.2%) and grind size (14.6%). Also, the applied pressure (58.3%) was the most significant factor affecting specific energy required to manufacture pellets followed by the biomass (15.3%), pre-treatment (13.3%) and grind size (13.2%), which had lower but similar effect affect on specific energy. In addition, correlations for pellet density and specific energy with applied pressure and hammer mill screen sizes having highest R2 values were developed. Higher grind sizes and lower applied pressures resulted in higher relaxations (lower pellet densities) during storage of pellets. Three compression models, namely: Jones model, Cooper-Eaton model, and Kawakita-Ludde model were considered to determine the pressure-volume and pressure-density relationship of non-treated and steam exploded straws. Kawakita-Ludde model provided the best fit to the experimental data having R2 values of 0.99 for non-treated straw and 1.00 for steam exploded biomass samples. The steam exploded straw had higher porosity than non-treated straw. In addition, the steam exploded straw was easier to compress since it had lower yield strength or failure stress values compared to non-treated straw. Pilot scale pelleting experiments were performed on non-treated, steam exploded and customized (adding steam exploded straw grinds in increments of 25% to non-treated straw) barley, canola, oat and wheat straw grinds obtained from 6.4, 3.2, 1.6 and 0.8 mm hammer mill screen sizes at 10% moisture content (wb). The pilot scale pellet mill produced pellets from ground non-treated straw at hammer mill screen sizes of 0.8 and 1.6 mm and customized samples having 25% steam exploded straw at 0.8 mm. It was observed that the pellet bulk density and particle density are positively correlated. The density and durability of agricultural straw pellets significantly increased with a decrease in hammer mill screen size from 1.6 mm to 0.8 mm. Interestingly, customization of agricultural straw by adding 25% of steam exploded straw by weight resulted in higher durability (> 80%) pellets but did not improve durability compared to non-treated straw pellets. In addition, durability of pellets was negatively correlated to pellet mill throughput and was positively correlated to specific energy consumption. Total specific energy required to form pellets increased with a decrease in hammer mill screen size from 1.6 to 0.8 mm and also the total specific energy significantly increased with customization of straw at 0.8 mm screen size. It has been determined that the net specific energy available for production of biofuel is a significant portion of original agricultural biomass energy (89-94%) for all agricultural biomass.

The two main sources of biomass for energy generation are purpose-grown energy crops and waste materials. Energy crops, such as Miscanthus and short rotation woody crops (coppice), are cultivated mainly for energy purposes and are associated with the food vs. fuels debate, which is concerned with whether land should be used for fuel rather than food production. The use of residues from agriculture, such as barley, canola, oat and wheat straw, for energy generation circumvents the food vs. fuel dilemma and adds value to existing crops. In fact, these residues represent an abundant, inexpensive and readily available source of renewable lignocellulosic biomass. In order to reduce industrys operational cost as well as to meet the requirement of raw material for biofuel production, biomass must be processed and handled in an efficient manner. Due to its high moisture content, irregular shape and size, and low bulk density, biomass is very difficult to handle, transport, store, and utilize in its original form. Densification of biomass into durable compacts is an effective solution to these problems and it can reduce material waste. Upon densification, many agricultural biomass materials, especially those from straw and stover, result in a poorly formed pellets or compacts that are more often dusty, difficult to handle and costly to manufacture. This is caused by lack of complete understanding on the natural binding characteristics of the components that make up biomass. An integrated approach to postharvest processing (chopping, grinding and steam explosion), and feasibility study on lab-scale and pilot scale densification of non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw was successfully established to develop baseline data and correlations, that assisted in performing overall specific energy analysis. A new procedure was developed to rapidly characterize the lignocellulosic composition of agricultural biomass using the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In addition, baseline knowledge was created to determine the physical and frictional properties of non-treated and steam exploded agricultural biomass grinds. Particle size reduction of agricultural biomass was performed to increase the total surface area, pore size of the material and the number of contact points for inter-particle bonding in the compaction process. Predictive regression equations having higher R2 values were developed that could be used by biorefineries to perform economic feasibility of establishing a processing plant. Specific energy required by a hammer mill to grind non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw showed a negative power correlation with hammer mill screen sizes. Rapid and cost effective quantification of lignocellulosic components (cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin) of agricultural biomass (barley, canola, oat and wheat) is essential to determine the effect of various pre-treatments (such as steam explosion) on biomass used as feedstock for the biofuel industry. A novel procedure to quantitatively predict lignocellulosic components of non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw was developed using Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Regression equations having R2 values of 0.89, 0.99 and 0.98 were developed to predict the cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin compounds of biomass, respectively. The average absolute difference in predicted and measured cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in agricultural biomass was 7.5%, 2.5%, and 3.8%, respectively. Application of steam explosion pre-treatment on agricultural straw significantly altered the physical and frictional properties, which has direct significance on designing new and modifying existing bins, hoppers and feeders for handling and storage of straw for biofuel industry. As a result, regression equations were developed to enhance process efficiency by eliminating the need for experimental procedure while designing and manufacturing of new handling equipment. Compaction of low bulk density agricultural biomass is a critical and desirable operation for sustainable and economic availability of feedstock for the biofuel industry. A comprehensive study of the compression characteristics (density of pellet and total specific energy required for compression) of ground non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw obtained from three hammer mill screen sizes of 6.4, 3.2 and 1.6 mm at 10% moisture content (wb) was conducted. Four preset pressures of 31.6, 63.2, 94.7 and 138.9 MPa, were applied using an Instron testing machine to compress samples in a cylindrical die. It was determined that the applied pressure (60.4%) was the most significant factor affecting pellet density followed by the application of steam explosion pre-treatment (39.4%). Similarly, the type of biomass (47.1%) is the most significant factor affecting durability followed by the application of pre-treatment (38.2%) and grind size (14.6%). Also, the applied pressure (58.3%) was the most significant factor affecting specific energy required to manufacture pellets followed by the biomass (15.3%), pre-treatment (13.3%) and grind size (13.2%), which had lower but similar effect affect on specific energy. In addition, correlations for pellet density and specific energy with applied pressure and hammer mill screen sizes having highest R2 values were developed. Higher grind sizes and lower applied pressures resulted in higher relaxations (lower pellet densities) during storage of pellets. Three compression models, namely: Jones model, Cooper-Eaton model, and Kawakita-Ludde model were considered to determine the pressure-volume and pressure-density relationship of non-treated and steam exploded straws. Kawakita-Ludde model provided the best fit to the experimental data having R2 values of 0.99 for non-treated straw and 1.00 for steam exploded biomass samples. The steam exploded straw had higher porosity than non-treated straw. In addition, the steam exploded straw was easier to compress since it had lower yield strength or failure stress values compared to non-treated straw. Pilot scale pelleting experiments were performed on non-treated, steam exploded and customized (adding steam exploded straw grinds in increments of 25% to non-treated straw) barley, canola, oat and wheat straw grinds obtained from 6.4, 3.2, 1.6 and 0.8 mm hammer mill screen sizes at 10% moisture content (wb). The pilot scale pellet mill produced pellets from ground non-treated straw at hammer mill screen sizes of 0.8 and 1.6 mm and customized samples having 25% steam exploded straw at 0.8 mm. It was observed that the pellet bulk density and particle density are positively correlated. The density and durability of agricultural straw pellets significantly increased with a decrease in hammer mill screen size from 1.6 mm to 0.8 mm. Interestingly, customization of agricultural straw by adding 25% of steam exploded straw by weight resulted in higher durability (> 80%) pellets but did not improve durability compared to non-treated straw pellets. In addition, durability of pellets was negatively correlated to pellet mill throughput and was positively correlated to specific energy consumption. Total specific energy required to form pellets increased with a decrease in hammer mill screen size from 1.6 to 0.8 mm and also the total specific energy significantly increased with customization of straw at 0.8 mm screen size. It has been determined that the net specific energy available for production of biofuel is a significant portion of original agricultural biomass energy (89-94%) for all agricultural biomass.