The Wilson’s Plover (Charadrius wilsonia) is a species of concern in most southeastern U.S. coastal states, where it breeds and winters. The U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan listed this species as a Species of High Concern (Prioritization Category 4), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has designated it as a Bird of Conservation Concern (BCC). Despite its conservation status, Wilson’s Plover population trends are poorly understood and little research has been conducted examining habitat factors affecting this species’ breeding and foraging ecology. I collected Wilson’s Plover demographic data and explored which habitat characteristics influenced breeding success and foraging site selection among three coastal habitat types (i.e. fiddler crab (Uca spp.) mud flats, beach front, and interdune sand flats) at Onslow Beach, Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, 2008-2009. I observed little difference between years in nest success (≥ 1 egg hatched), failure, and overall nest survival. The majority of nest failures were caused by mammalian predators. For those nests that hatched successfully, greater proportions were located in clumped vegetation than on bare ground or sparsely vegetated areas. In-season chick survival for both years was higher for nests that hatched earlier in the season, and for nests farthest from the broods’ final foraging territory. Productivity estimates (chicks fledged per breeding pair) were not significantly different between years (0.88 ± 0.26 fledged/pair in 2008, 1.00 ± 0.25 fledged/pair in 2009) despite a shift in foraging behavior, possibly related to habitat alterations and availability in 2009. My findings indicate that Wilson’s Plover adults and broods were flexible in establishing final foraging territories; in 2008 all final brood foraging territories were on fiddler flats while in 2009, final foraging territories were sometimes split between fiddler flats, beach front, and interdune sand flats. For those Wilson’s Plovers establishing territories on fiddler flats, area of the flat was the most important feature explaining use versus non-use of a particular flat; area ≥ 1250 m² was preferred. Close proximity to water and vegetative cover were also important habitat features in foraging site selection on fiddler crab mud flats, and in all habitat types combined. My findings will directly contribute to population and habitat research goals outlined in the U.S. Shorebird Plan and will supplement limited data about foraging and habitat use related to Wilson’s Plover breeding ecology. / Master of Science

This thesis investigates the design of a new, private residential community on the undeveloped island, Thatch Cay, in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Architectural issues explored include the use of load bearing walls versus free standing columns for the primary structure of the individual buildings as a means of ordering space and a way to frame the context of the Caribbean. Architectural decisions involve how to make openings in the walls, how much of the walls remain, and how the remaining portions of the walls are articulated, as best suited for the specific building type, a prototype residence, in this particular setting in the tropics. / Master of Architecture

Chapter 1 gives a general introduction into plastic polymer and microplastics including concepts, sources and distribution in the environment, microplastic sampling and analytical methods, and sampling area descriptions. Chapter 2 represents all methods and followed equipment used in the thesis. A double-filtration procedure preferable to Raman microscopy technique was developed to collect marine microplastics in brackish water from Can Gio and seawater from the East Sea. Chapter 3 is a comprehensive guideline on IR and Raman spectra interpretation of PE, PP, PVC, PS, PMMA, and polymer textiles, which is especially useful if the automatic library is not available. This chapter represents how to identify polymer type, predict sources and chemical behaviours of microplastics with the smallest size of 15 μm based on microscopic and spectroscopic data. Also, this chapter evaluates the sample handling workflows for salt, water and sand samples. Chapter 4 demonstrates the change in microplastic pollution from 250 MPs/L in Saigon urban canals (the center of Ho Chi Minh City), through UNESCO Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve (10 – 20 MPs/L), to estuaries of Saigon-Đong Nai River, Soai Rap River, Long Tau River (Ganh Rai Gulf), and eventually to the East Sea (3 – 5 MPs/L). Chapter 5 highlights the correlation of microplastic properties and compositions in beach sand and seawater in the coastal environment, particularly at Can Gio 30 April Tourist Beach. This is a pilot study to identify the differences and similarities in morphologies and compositions of microplastics accumulated in beach sand and distributed in seawater, thereby, concluding sources and transport routes of microplastics in the coastal environment. The results show that microplastics accumulated at concentrations from 0 to 92.56 MPs/kg from the surface to 20-cm sand layers. The seawater at Can Gio Beach and Đong Tranh Cape contained 6.44 and 3.75 MPs/L of microplastics, respectively. White polyethylene fragments predominated, and all the microplastics comprised small secondary microplastics with a minimum size of 25 µm and a maximum size of 260 µm for fragments and a length of 640 µm for fibers. The proportions of PE, PP, PS and PMMA were similar. The differing percentages of other compositions in sand and seawater are attributed to the morphology and density of the microplastics. Chapter 6 deals with the detection and determination of microplastics in Vietnamese sea salts. As a result, there was a higher fluctuation in microplastic amount amongs non-branded salts compared with branded salts. An average of 133.62 MPs/kg salt, corresponding to 487.71 microplastics entering the human body per year via salt consumption. More importantly, this chapter provides a convincing evidence for microplastic contamination in marine salts from the seawater. There are similarities in percentage, shape, size and colour of microplastics, especially PE, PET and PP extracted from sea salt and seawater collected in 3 different regions in Southern Vietnam (Can Gio Reserve and Vung Tau).:Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1. Synthetic polymers and plastic products 1.1.1. Overview of polymers and plastics 1.1.2. Plastic applications and global productions 1.1.2.1. Conventional plastics 1.1.2.2. Bioplastics 1.1.3. The life cycle of plastics and plastic pollution 1.2. Microplastics – definitions, sources and fate 1.2.1. Definition and classification of microplastics 1.2.2. Sources and pathways of microplastics into the environments 1.2.3. Global distribution and behaviours of microplastics in the environment 1.2.3.1. Physical behaviours: temporal and spatial accumulations 1.2.3.2. Chemical behaviours: Degradation and Adsorption 1.2.3.3. Biobehaviours: Ingestion, Translocation and Biodegradation 1.3. Effects and bioavailability of plastics on ecosystems, creatures and humans 1.3.1. Aquatic ecosystem 1.3.2. Terrestrial ecosystem 1.3.3. Food safety and human healths 1.4. Microplastic sampling techniques and analytical methods 1.4.1. Microplastic sampling techniques 1.4.1.1. Water sampling 1.4.1.2. Sediment sampling 1.4.2. Sample preparations for microplastic analysis 1.4.2.1. Matrix removal – oxidation and tissue digestion 1.4.2.2. Microplastic separation – density flotation and filtration 1.4.3. Microplastic qualification and quantification methods 1.4.3.1. Visual identification methods 1.4.3.2. Spectroscopic identification methods 1.4.3.3. Destructive thermal techniques 1.4.3.4. Summarized workflow from samples to the results on microplastics 1.4.3.5. Data expression Chapter 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials 2.2. Microscopy-spectroscopy for microplastic quantification and qualification 2.3. Quality assurances (QA) and quality controls (QC) 2.4. Collected and interviewed data on the study areas 2.5. Water samples 2.6. Sand samples 2.7. Marine salt samples Chapter 3. The comprehensive guideline on micro-spectroscopic interpretation and sample preparations for microplastic analysis 3.1. Abstract 3.2. Visual characterizations of microplastics 3.3. Interpretation of IR and Raman spectra for plastic identification 3.4. The specificity of spectroscopies for identifying polymer type and chemical behaviours of sampled microplastics 3.4.1. Poly-Ethylene (PE) 3.4.2. Poly-Propylene (PP) 3.4.3. Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC) 3.4.4. Poly-Styrene (PS) 3.4.5. Poly Methyl Metacrylate (PMMA) 3.4.6. Poly-Ethylene Terephthalate (PET) 3.4.7. Poly-Amides-6, Nylon-6 (PA-6) 3.4.8. Similarity in Raman bands of pure plastics and sampled microplastics 3.5. The evaluation of sample treatment procedures 3.5.1. Salt samples 3.5.2. Sand samples 3.5.3. Water samples Chapter 4. Assessing microplastic prevalence and spatial dispersion from Saigon urban river network to East Sea by µ-Raman spectroscopy 4.1. Abstract 4.2. Microplastic pollution in the freshwater at Saigon urban canals 4.3. Microplastic pollution in the seawater at Can Gio Biosphere Reserve 4.4. Spatial and vertical dispersion of microplastics in the East Sea of Vietnam 4.5. Conclusions Chapter 5. Comparison of Microplastic Pollution in Beach Sediment and Seawater at UNESCO Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve 5.1. Abstract 5.2. Microplastic pollution in the sand at Can Gio Beach 5.2.1. Spatial variation in the microplastic amounts along the tidal lines 5.2.2. The abundance and composition of microplastics accumulated in sand layers 5.3. Microplastic pollution in seawater at Can Gio Beach and Đong Tranh Cape 5.4. Comparison of microplastic pollution between seawater and beach sand 5.5. Conclusions and recommendations Chapter 6. Microplastic contamination in Vietnamese sea salts 6.1. Abstract 6.2. The microplastics abundance in commercial sea salts 6.3. Microplastic pollution in the seawater taken at salt pans in Vietnam 6.4. Microplastic contamination in the sea salt collected at salt pans in Vietnam 6.5. Comparison of characteristics of microplastics in the seawater and sea salt 6.6. The enhanced toxicity of microplastics-contaminated salt consumption 6.7. Conclusions and recommendations Final Conclusions and Future Recommendations List of references Appendix Statistical data Photos taken on the sampling trips

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Las playas son ambientes ecológicos sumamente valiosos donde a lo largo de una frágil franja de transición converge el entorno terrestre y el medio marino. Durante el último siglo, la mejora en la comprensión de los procesos físicos que ocurren en la zona costera se ha convertido en un asunto de máxima importancia. Para abordar una planificación coherente de la gestión costera se requiere tomar en consideración el dinamismo de los diferentes cambios morfológicos que caracterizan estos ambientes a distintas escalas espaciales y temporales. El límite tierra-agua varía en función de la posición del nivel del mar y de la forma del perfil de playa que continuamente queda modelado por las olas incidentes. Intentar modelizar la respuesta de un paisaje tan voluble geomorfológicamente como las playas requiere disponer de múltiples medidas registradas con suficiente precisión para poder reconocer su respuesta frente a la acción de los distintos agentes geomórficos. Para ello resulta esencial disponer de diferentes sistemas de monitorización capaces de registrar de forma sistemática la línea de costa con exactitud y efectividad. Se requieren nuevos métodos y herramientas informáticas que permitan capturar, caracterizar y analizar eficientemente la información con el objeto de obtener indicadores con significación geomorfológica de calidad. En esto radica el objetivo de la presente tesis doctoral, centrándose en el desarrollo de herramientas y procedimientos eficientes para la monitorización costera mediante el uso de imágenes satelitales y fotografías terrestres. El trabajo aporta soluciones de procesamiento de imágenes de satélite y fotogramétricas a científicos, ingenieros y gestores costeros, proporcionando resultados que evidencian la gran utilidad de estas técnicas viables y de bajo coste para la monitorización costera. Mediante ellas se puede convertir información pública existente y de libre acceso (imágenes satelitales, datos de video cámaras o fotografías de la ciudadanía) en datos de alta calidad para el monitoreo de los cambios morfológicos de las playas, y lograr así una consiguiente gestión sostenible de los recursos costeros. / [CA] Les platges són ambients ecològics summament valuosos on al llarg d'una feble franja de transició convergeix l'entorn terrestre i el medi marí. En l'últim segle, la millora en la comprensió dels processos físics que ocorren en la zona costanera s'ha convertit en un assumpte de màxima importància. Per a abordar una planificació coherent de la gestió costanera es requereix prendre en consideració el dinamisme dels diferents canvis morfològics que caracteritzen aquests ambients a diferents escales espacials i temporals. El límit terra-aigua varia en funció de la posició del nivell del mar i de la forma del perfil de platja que contínuament queda modelat per les ones incidents. Intentar modelitzar la resposta d'un paisatge tan voluble geomorfològicament com les platges requereix disposar de múltiples mesures registrades amb suficient precisió per poder reconèixer la seua resposta enfront de l'acció dels diferents agents geomòrfics. Per tant, resulta essencial disposar de diferents sistemes de monitoratge capaços de registrar de forma sistemàtica la línia de costa amb exactitud i efectivitat. Es requereixen nous mètodes i eines informàtiques que permeten capturar, caracteritzar i analitzar eficientment la informació a fi d'obtindre indicadors amb significació geomorfològica de qualitat. En això radica l'objectiu de la present tesi doctoral, que es centra en el desenvolupament d'eines i procediments eficients per al monitoratge costaner mitjançant l'ús d'imatges de satèl·lit i fotografies terrestres. El treball aporta solucions de processament d'imatges de satèl·lit i fotogramètriques a científics, enginyers, polítics i gestors costaners, proporcionant resultats que evidencien la gran utilitat d'aquestes tècniques factibles i de baix cost per a la monitorització costanera. Mitjançant aquestes es pot convertir informació pública existent i de lliure accés (imatges de satèl·lit, dades de videocàmeres o fotografies de la ciutadania) en dades d'alta qualitat per al monitoratge dels canvis morfològics de les platges, i aconseguir així una consegüent gestió sostenible dels recursos costaners. / [EN] Beaches are extremely valuable ecological spaces where terrestrial and marine environments converge along a fragile transition strip. An improvement in our understanding of the physical processes that occur in the coastal zone has become increasingly important during the last century. To approach a coherent planning of coastal management it is necessary to consider the dynamism of the various morphological changes that characterize these environments at different spatial and temporal scales. The land-water boundary varies according to the sea level and the shape of a beach profile that is continuously modelled by incident waves. Attempting to model the response of a landscape as geomorphologically volatile as beaches requires multiple precise measurements to recognize responses to the actions of various geomorphic agents. It is therefore essential to have monitoring systems capable of systematically recording the shoreline accurately and effectively. New methods and tools are required to efficiently capture, characterize, and analyze information - and so obtain geomorphologically significant indicators. This is the aim of the doctoral thesis, focusing on the development of tools and procedures for coastal monitoring using satellite images and terrestrial photographs. The work brings satellite image processing and photogrammetric solutions to scientists, engineers, and coastal managers by providing results that demonstrate the usefulness of these viable and low-cost techniques. Existing and freely accessible public information (satellite images, video-derived data, or crowd-sourced photographs) can be converted into high quality data for monitoring morphological changes on beaches and thus help achieve a sustainable management of coastal resources. / Agradecer al Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte del Gobierno de España por la beca predoctoral FPU, y por las ayudas de movilidad concedidas, que han permitido que esta Tesis Doctoral fuera una realidad. También a los proyectos AICO/2015/098 y CGL2015-69906-R financiados respectivamente por la Generalitat Valenciana y por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. / Sánchez García, E. (2019). Photogrammetry and image processing techniques for beach monitoring [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/123956 / Compendio

Urbanization is a fundamental reality in the developed and developing countries around the world creating large concentrations of the population centering on cities and urban centers. Cities can offer many opportunities for those residing there, including infrastructure, health services, rescue services and more. The living space density of cities allows for the opportunity of more effective and environmentally friendly housing, transportation and resources. Cities play a vital role in generating economic production as entities by themselves and as a part of larger urban complex. The benefits can provide for extraordinary amount of people, but only if proper planning and consideration is undertaken. Global urbanization is a progressive evolution, unique in spatial location while consistent to an overall growth pattern and trend. Remotely sensing these patterns from the last forty years of space borne satellites to understand how urbanization has developed is important to understanding past growth as well as planning for the future. Imagery from the Landsat sensor program provides the temporal component, it was the first satellite launched in 1972, providing appropriate spatial resolution needed to cover a large metropolitan statistical area to monitor urban growth and change on a large scale. This research maps the urban spatial and population growth over the Miami – Fort Lauderdale – West Palm Beach Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) covering Miami- Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach counties in Southeast Florida from 1974 to 2010 using Landsat imagery. Supervised Maximum Likelihood classification was performed with a combination of spectral and textural training fields employed in ERDAS Image 2014 to classify the images into urban and non-urban areas. Dasymetric mapping of the classification results were combined with census tract data then created a coherent depiction of the Miami – Fort Lauderdale – West Palm Beach MSA. Static maps and animated files were created from the final datasets for enhanced visualizations and understanding of the MSA evolution from 60-meter resolution remotely sensed Landsat images. The simplified methodology will create a database for urban planning and population growth as well as future work in this area. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2017. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Culture types in Pacific Northwest archaeology are characteristic artifact assemblages distinguishing different prehistoric periods. Assemblages indicate a culture type transition during the 2,630 BP–270 BP occupation of Willows Beach (DcRt-10), southeastern Vancouver Island. Faunal remains could reveal links to subsistence patterns, following Croes’s theory that culture type change reflects subsistence intensification. Five dated DcRt-10 faunal assemblages underwent taxonomic and size classification, weighing and MNI calculation. Vertebrate weight and NISP percentages were compared between stratigraphic units associated with the later Gulf of Georgia and earlier Locarno Beach culture types. The youngest assemblage contains a smaller proportion of land mammal bone, suggesting increased sea mammal, fish, and bird procurement. Faunal remains also suggest a greater variety of taxa exploited over time. Faunal assemblages suggest that culture type change at DcRt-10 is the product of subsistence change, increasing knowledge of the culture historic sequence of this region.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The various consequences of climate change pose a significant threat to developments near the coast. These threats include saltwater intrusion, coastal erosion and flooding. In the coastal context, the climate change effect often raising the most concern is that of sea-level rise. Much work has therefore been done on the linear setback caused by a rise in sea-level. In order to get the full picture of possible changes caused by sea-level rise, the secondary effects of a rising sea-level also need to be considered. Sea-level rise could cause changes to the nearshore wave climate and could have impacts such as coastal erosion and changes to the coastline shape. The primary objective of this study was therefore to investigate the effects of sea-level rise on the nearshore wave climate and, consequently, the coastline stability. Other consequences of climate change considered in this study include increasing average wave heights and a rotation of offshore wave directions. The many headland-bay beaches on the South African coastline are generally in a state of dynamic equilibrium and find their planforms based on the local wave climate. Changes to the wave climate may therefore disrupt the equilibrium shapes of these bays. This study was therefore also aimed at investigating the effects of the changes to the wave climate on the stability of headland-bay beaches. The three consequences of climate change expected to affect the nearshore wave climate were identified as (1) sea-level rise; (2) an increased wave height; and (3) changing offshore wave angles. Although changes to storm frequency and intensity are also possible, the impacts of these changes were not studied. In order to assess the impacts of the three considered changes on a typical headland-bay beach, two numerical models were set up for Mossel Bay – a headland-bay beach on the southern coast of South Africa. The modelling approach included a wave transformation model to calculate nearshore wave climates from offshore data and a coastline model to assess the stability of the bay under the changed nearshore wave climates. The model results indicated that the rising sea-level alone would cause changes in the nearshore wave direction. These changes were shown to alter the longshore sediment transport regime such that rotations are expected in the south-western corner and eastern end of Mossel Bay. These rotations do not include the cross-shore effects of inundation and erosion, as suggested by models such as the Bruun Model. The results for an increased offshore wave height were inconclusive. The southerly rotation in offshore wave angles was shown to affect the nearshore wave angles. These changes affected the longshore transport regime such that the outward sediment transports were reduced. A minor accretion resulted in the centre of the bay for a 1° southerly rotation in offshore wave angles. For a 2° rotation, the extent of accretion increased and shifted towards the eastern end of the bay, primarily due to the dominance of south-westerly waves in the local wave climate. A valuable observation was made regarding the current stability of Mossel Bay. Inter-tidal reefs are present along three sections of the bay. These reefs protect the coastline such that the current bay shape contains sharp bends between the reefs. Under a rising sea-level, however, the effect of the reefs will become less pronounced. If a water level should be reached where these reefs become less significant, the planform of the bay is expected to smooth out through a significant redistribution of sediment. This smoothing effect was shown to cause erosion of the coastline in the order of 80m near the town of Klein Brak River. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verskeie gevolge van klimaatsverandering bied ‘n merkwaardige bedreiging vir ontwikkelings naby die kus. Hierdie bedreigings sluit die versouting van varswaterbronne, kuserosie en oorstromings in. Vir kusgebiede is seevlakstyging gereeld die effek van klimaatsverandering wat die meeste kommer wek. Dus is heelwat navorsing rakende die direkte erosie as gevolg van seevlakstyging reeds gedoen. Om die volle beeld van die gevolge van ‘n stygende seevlak te verkry, is dit egter nodig om ook die sekondêre effekte hiervan in ag te neem. Seevlakstyging kan veranderinge in die golfklimaat naby die kus veroorsaak, en kan impakte soos kuserosie en veranderende baaivorms tot gevolg hê. Die primêre doel van hierdie studie is dus om die effek van seevlakstyging op die golfklimaat by die kus en gevolglik die stabiliteit van die kuslyn, te ondersoek. Benewens die styging van die seevlak word die effekte van groter gemiddelde golfhoogtes en die rotasie van diepsee golfrigtings ook in hierdie studie ondersoek. Die vele landpunt-baaie (headlandbay beaches) op die Suid-Afrikaanse kus is meestal in ‘n dinamiese ekwilibriumtoestand, waarvan die vorm deur die lokale golfklimaat bepaal word. Veranderinge aan dié golfklimaat mag dus die ekwilibrium vorms van sulke baaie versteur. Hierdie studie het dus ook die stabilititeit van landpuntbaaie onder ‘n veranderende golfklimaat ondersoek. Die drie gevolge van klimaatsverandering wat verwag word om die golfklimaat naby die kus te beïnvloed is geïdentifiseer as (1) seevlakstyging; (2) vergrote golfhoogtes; en (3) veranderende diepsee golfhoeke. Veranderinge aan die frekwensie en intensiteit van storms is ook moontlike gevolge van klimaatsverandering, maar die impakte hiervan is nie in die studie ondersoek nie. Twee numeriese modelle is toegepas om die impak van die drie bogenoemde gevolge op Mosselbaai – ‘n tipiese landpunt-baai aan die suidkus van Suid-Afrika – te ondersoek. ‘n Golfmodel is ingespan om die golfklimaat naby die kus te bepaal waarna ‘n kuslynmodel gebruik is om die stabiliteit van die baai onder die veranderde golfklimaat te ondersoek. Die resultate van die studie dui daarop dat die golfhoeke naby die kus beïnvloed word deur seevlakstyging. Daar is aangetoon dat dié veranderinge die langsstroomvervoer sodanig sal verander dat kuslynrotasies in die suid-westelike hoek asook die oostelike rand van Mosselbaai verwag word. Hierdie rotasies sluit nie die lineêre landwaartse verplasing van die kuslyn as gevolg van erosie en oorstroming in nie. Die effek van vergrote golfhoogtes kon nie met akkuraatheid ondersoek word nie. Daar is wel gevind dat die suidwaartse rotasie van diepsee golfhoeke rotasies in die golfklimaat naby die kus veroorsaak. Hierdie rotasies verander die langsstroom sedimentvervoer sodanig dat die uitwaartse sedimentvervoer verminder word en ‘n klein opbou van sediment in die middel van die baai vir ‘n 1° diepsee rotasie verwag word. Vir ‘n 2° suidwaartse rotasie is daar ‘n groter opbou van sediment wat verder ooswaarts veplaas is. Die ooswaartse veplasing is primêr ‘n gevolg van die oorheersing van suid-westelike golftoestande in die golfklimaat. ‘n Waardevolle gevolgtrekking rakende die huidige stabiliteit van Mosselbaai is ook gemaak. Langs drie gedeeltes van die Mosselbaaise kus word riwwe in die gebied tussen hoog- en laagwater aangetref. Hierdie riwwe beskerm die kus sodanig dat skerp kinkels in die vorm van die baai tussen die riwwe gesien kan word. Wanneer die seevlak styg, word die beskermende effek van die riwwe egter minder doeltreffend. Indien ‘n watervlak bereik word waar dié effek genoegsaam verminder is, word daar verwag dat die baai deur ‘n merkwaardige verplasing van sediment die kinkels sal uitstryk. Deur hierdie proses word erosie in die orde van 80m naby die dorp van Klein Brakrivier verwag.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Strand is located within False Bay and frequently encounters large quantities of wave overtopping over the coastal defences. This results in the damage of property and infrastructure and causes streets to be flooded. Physical modelling tests were done by a consultancy firm to determine a solution by making use of a recurve structure at the back of the beach. This study is an expansion of the previous physical modelling that was done and focuses on several factors that were not tested by the consultancy firm that could have an influence on the overtopping rate and provide additional information on the recurve design. These tests were: (i) the effectiveness of the proposed recurve wall design in reducing overtopping was compared to a vertical wall; (ii) the influence that modifications to the beach profile such as the beach slope, beach width and beach level have on the overtopping rate; and (iii) the sensitivity of overtopping to changes in wave period was tested. The information gathered from these tests was used to propose a possible solution for the Strand. Numerical modelling was done with Delft3D-Wave to determine the wave height at the back of the beach using a nested grid. The waves at the Strand are depth limited and therefore very sensitive to changes in water level. By altering the beach level the model showed how the significant wave height at the back of the beach changes. First estimates of overtopping were determined using the relevant empirical calculations from the EuroTop Manual 2007 for a vertical seawall. No estimate could be made for the recurve wall since it did not fall in the valid range of the equations. From the physical modelling it was found that the overtopping reduced significantly from a vertical to a recurve seawall by a factor of about 50% depending on the wall height. All the prediction methods tested proved to be accurate in estimating the overtopping when the ratio of freeboard to significant wave height was ≤1.83. For non-breaking wave conditions the beach profiles that were gently sloped (1:50) and wide produced more overtopping than the beach profiles that were steep (1:10) and narrow. Increasing the beach level only decreased the overtopping if the water depth was shallow enough to cause the waves to break before they reached the back of the beach. Overtopping was found to increase with longer wave periods until the wave period became too long and the waves broke offshore which resulted in the overtopping decreasing. Possible solutions to overtopping were proposed based on two beach levels and the implementation of a recurve seawall. Revised crest levels for the wall were made along the length of the beach for both the 1:20 and 1:100 year water levels. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Strand is in Valsbaai geleë en ervaar dikwels baie oorspoeling deur golwe bo-oor kusverdedigingswerke. Dit lei tot skade aan eiendom sowel as aan infrastruktuur en veroorsaak dat strate oorstroom. Fisiese modelleringstoetse is deur ’n konsultasiefirma gedoen om ’n oplossing te probeer vind deur van ’n teruggebuigde struktuur aan die agterkant van die strand gebruik te maak. Hierdie studie is ’n uitbreiding van die vorige fisiese modellering wat gedoen is en fokus op verskeie faktore wat nie deur die konsultasiefirma getoets is nie. Dit kan moontlik ’n invloed op die oorspoelingstempo hê en verskaf bykomende inligting oor die ontwerp van die terugbuiging. Hierdie toetse is: (i) die doeltreffendheid van die voorgestelde ontwerp van die teruggebuigde strandmuur in die vermindering van oorspoeling word vergelyk met ’n vertikale muur; (ii) die invloed wat veranderinge aan die strandprofiel soos die helling van die strand, die wydte van die strand asook die strandvlak op die oorspoelingstempo het; en (iii) die sensitiwiteit van oorspoeling op veranderinge in golfperiode is getoets. Die inligting wat uit hierdie toetse verkry is, word gebruik om ’n moontlike oplossing vir die Strand voor te stel. Numeriese modellering is met Delft3D-Wave gedoen om die golfhoogte aan die agterkant van die strand vas te stel deur van ’n genestelde ruitenet gebruik te maak. Die golwe by die Strand word deur diepte beperk en is dus baie sensitief vir veranderinge in die watervlak. Deur die strandvlakke te verander het die model getoon hoe die betekenisvolle golfhoogte aan die agterkant van die strand verander. Die eerste beramings van oorspoeling is bepaal deur van die relevante empiriese berekenings uit die EuroTop-handleiding 2007 vir ’n vertikale strandmuur gebruik te maak. Daar kon geen beraming vir die teruggebuigde muur gemaak word nie aangesien dit nie binne die geldige bereik van die vergelykings val nie. Uit die fisiese modellering is daar vasgestel dat oorspoeling noemenswaardig met ’n gemiddeld van ongeveer 50% verminder is, afhangend van die muurhoogte. Al die voorspellingmetodes wat getoets is was akkuraat in die beraming van die oorspoeling wanneer die verhouding van vryboord tot betekenisvolle golfhoogte ≤1.83 was. Vir nie-brekende golftoestande het strandprofiele met ’n lae helling (1:50) en wat wyd was meer oorspoeling tot gevolg gehad as strandprofiele wat steil (1:10) en nou was. ’n Verhoging in die strand se vlakke het die oorspoeling slegs verminder indien die diepte van die water vlak genoeg was om die golwe te laat breek voordat hulle die agterkant van die strand bereik het. Oorspoeling is gevind om te vermeeder met verlengde golflengte tot dat die golflengte só lank geword het dat die golwe in dieper water begin breek wat aanlieding tot verminderde oorspoeling gegee het. Daar word moontlike oplossings vir oorspoeling voorgestel gebaseer op twee strandvlakke en die implementering van ’n teruggebuigde strandmuur. Voorgestelde golfkruinvlakke vir die muur is al langs die lengte van die strand gemaak vir beide die 1:20- en 1:100-jaar watervlakke.

Does God exist? Can we know for sure? What might it mean to know this? Furthermore what might it look like to make works of art while also seeking to find answers to these questions? This thesis details my personal experiences growing up in a world steeped in postmodernism and my move to answer such questions while looking to develop a meaningful, clear worldview and body of work. I have turned my focus on specific episodes in my life, which significantly illuminate a progression of thinking and experience. Together these thoughts and experiences have become the impetus for both questions and propositions embedded within the long haul of my work culminating in my thesis exhibition.

La plupart des côtes de la Terre reculent et 80% sont rocheuses. La prévision du recul des falaises littorales est primordiale afin d’anticiper les risques futurs pour les aménagements littoraux. Cependant, la compréhension de ce recul est difficile car de nombreux paramètres le contrôlent. Des expériences en canal à houle de petite échelle ont été effectuées où nous avons mis en place un massif de sable humide soumis à l’attaque des vagues par sapement. Le but est de comprendre comment l’effet des vagues contrôle l’érosion des falaises. La technique de mesure par ombroscopie a été employée et nous a permis de détecter la surface du sable et la surface libre en fonction du temps. Nous avons ainsi analysé l’influence du forçage des vagues (F, ξ) (où F est le flux d’énergie des vagues incidentes au large et ξ est le paramètre de similitude de “surf”) sur la vitesse de recul de la falaise et sur la profondeur des évènements d’effondrement. La vitesse de recul de la falaise augmente linéairement avec le flux d’énergie F. Les débris de falaise érodés changent la morphologie du fond, les types de morphologie du fond dépendent fortement du paramètre de similitude de “surf” au déferlement, ou encore du paramètre de Dean Ω. Des profils du fond instationnaires présentant une oscillation auto-entretenue de la barre sédimentaire ont été observés. Nous avons de plus étudié l’effet de la granulométrie du sable utilisé : pour un sable plus fin, la falaise est plus cohésive et s’effondre au cours d’évènements de plus grande ampleur. Etonnamment, le recul de la falaise est plus important pour du sable fin. Ceci est probablement dû à une modification de la morphologie du fond conduisant à une dissipation de l’énergie des vagues moins importante. Le volume de sable injecté dans le système a finalement été quantifié, la barre sédimentaire a d’abord été prélevée périodiquement et il a été observé que la vitesse de recul de la falaise vr est constante. Puis, la hauteur de falaise a été modifiée, le recul des falaises est plus important pour des petites falaises. Il semblerait que l’instationnarité d’un profil du fond se déclenche à partir d’un volume seuil de sable érodé. / Most of the Earth coasts recedes and 80 % are rocky. Prediction of sea-cliff recession is essential to anticipate future risks for coastal development. However, it is difficult to understand this recession because many parameters control it. In addition, both the space and time scales are too big for the different mechanisms of cliff erosion to be fully analysed. Experiments in a small-scale wave flume were conducted in which a massif made of wet sand is submitted to wave attack. The aim is to understand how cliff erosion is wave-controlled. The technique of shadow graph measurements was used to detect the time evolution of sand and water surfaces. We have analyzed the influence of wave forcing (F, ξ) (where F is the incident offshore wave energy flux and ξ is the surf similarity parameter) on the cliff recession rate and on collapse event size. The cliff recession rate increases linearly with the wave energy flux F. The eroded cliff materials change the bottom morphology ; the types of bottom morphology strongly depend on the surf similarity parameter at the breaker point, or the Dean parameter Ω. Bottom profiles characterized by unsteady self-sustained sandbar oscillation were observed. In addition, we studied how sand granulometry change the system evolution. Finer the sand is, more cohesive is the cliff and bigger are cliff collapses. Contrary to what was expected, cliff recession is more important for a finer sand : this could be due to a more dissipative bottom morphology built by fine sands. The sand volume within the system changes following cliff collapses and a sandbar removal during particular experiments. The cliff recession rate is constant when the sandbar is removed and decreases with cliff height. It seems that the unsteadiness of the bottom profile is activated when the volume of eroded sand exceeds a threshold value.