abstract: This dissertation addresses the role of kinship and residential mobility during the transition from Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age (ca. 3500 – 2500 BC) in Attica, Greece. It examines descent systems, ancestor formation, and the interplay between biological, social, and spatial structure in mortuary practices. It also evaluates the nature and degree of residential mobility and its potential role in the formation and maintenance of social networks. Archaeological hypotheses on the kin-based structure of formal cemeteries, the familial use of collective tombs, marriage practices and mate exchange, and relocation were tested focusing on the Early Helladic cemetery of Tsepi at Marathon. Tsepi constitutes the earliest formally organized cemetery on the Greek mainland and it has also contributed to enduring debates over the nature of the interaction between the eastern Attic coast and the central Aegean islands. This study integrates osteological, biogeochemical, and archaeological data. Inherited dental and cranial features were used to examine biological relatedness and postmarital residence (biodistance analysis). Biochemical analysis of archaeological and modern samples was conducted to examine the geographic origins of the individuals buried in the cemetery and reconstruct mobility patterns. Osteological and biogeochemical data were interpreted in conjunction with archaeological and ethnographic/ethnohistoric data. The results generally supported a relationship between spatial organization and biological relatedness based on phenotypic similarity at Tsepi. Postmarital residence analysis showed exogamous practices and tentatively supported higher male than female mobility. This practice, along with dietary inferences, could also be suggestive of maritime activities. Biogeochemical analysis showed a local character for the cemetery sample (96%). The common provenance of the three non-local individuals might reflect a link between Tsepi and a single locale. Burial location was not determined by provenance or solely by biological relatedness. Overall, the results point towards more nuanced reconstructions of mobility in prehistoric Aegean and suggest that burial location depended on a complex set of inter-individual relationships and collective identities. The contextualized bioarchaeological approach applied in this study added to the anthropological investigations of social practices such as kin relations (e.g., biological, marital, social kinship) and residential relocation as diachronic mechanisms of integration, adaptation, or differentiation. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Anthropology 2015

abstract: This research focuses upon the intersection of social complexity and leadership among commoners in complex societies as expressed through mortuary ritual. I study how ideology, materialized through treatment of the deceased body, was a potential source of power among commoners in ancient Maya society and how this materialization changed through time. Mortuary data are drawn from mid-level settlements of the Belize River Valley, located in western Belize within the eastern Maya lowlands. The primary research question addresses whether mid-level leaders in the Belize River Valley targeted certain human bodies for ancestral veneration through tomb re-entry and ritual interaction with skeletal remains. The ritual-political strategy of mid-level leaders is measured using archaeothanatology, an analysis of grave taphonomy based on forensic data, to reconstruct cultural beliefs about death based on treatment of deceased bodies, radiogenic strontium isotope analysis to reconstruct residential history, and analysis of dental metrics to assess biological kinship. While preservation of osseous material was poor, results indicate that the frequency of disarticulated and secondary burials was higher in eastern structures than in other locales, although eastern structures were not the only loci of these types of deposits. Overall, it does not seem like secondary burials were regularly and purposefully created for use as ritual objects or display. Radiogenic strontium isotope data enrich this analysis by showing that eastern structures were not a burial locale exclusive to individuals who spent their childhood in the Belize Valley. Data from upper-level eastern structures also suggests that within that part of society local birth did not guarantee interment in a local manner; perhaps the social network created during one's life shaped treatment in death more than residential origin. Biological distance analyses were inconclusive due to missing data. Comparison of mortuary practices to nearby regions shows distinct mortuary patterning across space and time. This is consistent with reconstructions of ancient Maya sociopolitical organization as regionally diverse and moderately integrated. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Anthropology 2015

Christian mortuary rites and practices were considered an important component of the successful evangelization of native Andeans, but historical documents account long-term campaigns to eradicate native mortuary practices and the persistence of the ancestor cult and idolatrous practices long after the first efforts of Christianization. In this presentation, we discuss different interpretations of natives buried as Christians from different regions of the Americas, as well as the various native responses to evangelization efforts from the perspective of bioarchaeology. Drawing from postcolonial theory and interpretive archaeology, we investigate different native and Spanish strategies, including accommodation, mimicry, ambivalence, and hybridity. / Los ritos y prácticas funerarias fueron considerados un componente importante del éxito de la evangelización de las poblaciones nativas andinas. Los documentos históricos describen campañas a largo plazo para erradicar las costumbres funerarias locales, el persistente culto a los ancestros y las prácticas idólatras tras los primeros esfuerzos de Cristianización. En este capítulo, discutimos las diferentes interpretaciones que se pueden dar de los nativos que fueron enterrados como cristianos en diferentes regiones de las Américas, así como las diferentes respuestas indígenas a los esfuerzos evangelizadores, desde una perspectiva bioarqueológica. Investigamos diferentes estrategias, españolas e indígenas, desde la perspectiva de la teoría poscolonial y la arqueología interpretativa, como acomodación, imitación, ambivalencia e hibridación. Además, exploramos las diferentes dimensiones de identidad en este contexto colonial.

Since the first explorations at the Paracas Peninsula in the beginnings of the 20th Century, cranial modifications drew attention of archaeologists. Several descriptions and classifications have been proposed, as well as hypothesis regarding the reasons behind this cultural practice; generally elements of identity such as status, gender, origin and ethnicity.Nevertheless, none of these hypothesis have been demonstrated yet, since there are not systematic studies correlating cranial shapes with archaeological provenience. In the context of the increasing interest regarding the Late Formative social and political dynamics in the South Coast of Peru, the identity of people buried in the Paracas Peninsula cemeteries and their possible relations to populations that inhabited the valleys towards the north and south is a central issue that has been addressed from the study of objects associated to the burials. Nevertheless the study of human remains is crucial and since the DNA preservation in coastal archaeological context is not good, the study of cranial modifications can give important information. In this paper we study and classify the cranial shapes of 38 individuals coming from 35 Paracas mortuary contexts that were excavated at Wari Kayán and at the Palpa valleys. As this sample is non-random and small, this study cannot to give a final answer to the possible reasons behind this practice in the Paracas realm, but it opens the discussion of this type of evidence, showing its potential and proposing a classification that allowed us to differentiate three groups of individuals: Those buried at the Peninsula and associated to Early Horizon textiles, those associated to Early Intermediate textiles and those coming from the southern valleys. / Uno de los aspectos que más llamó la atención de los arqueólogos desde las primeras exploraciones de la península de Paracas, a inicios del siglo XX, fueron las modificaciones craneales. Desde entonces hasta la fecha, se han realizado numerosas descripciones y clasificaciones, y se han propuesto diversas hipótesis referentes a las razones que estarían detrás de esta práctica cultural: estatus, género, origen, etnicidad, etc., elementos todos de la identidad. Sin embargo, todavía no se ha podido validar ninguna de estas hipótesis, porque no existe ningún estudio sistemático que haya clasificado las formas craneales y las haya relacionado con las características de los contextos de procedencia. En el marco del creciente interés por conocer la dinámica social y política de finales del Período Formativo en la costa sur del Perú, la identidad de las personasenterradas en los cementerios de la península de Paracas y su posible relación con poblaciones que habitaban los valles hacia el norte y hacia el sur, es un tema de discusión central, que ha sido abordado principalmente a partir del estudio de los objetos asociados a los enterramientos. En este contexto, el estudio de las modificaciones craneales adquiere relevancia, más aun considerando que los estudios genéticos no han logrado un nivel de resolución fino en el caso de Paracas. En este artículo, se estudia y clasifica las formas craneales de 38 individuos procedentes de 35 contextos funerarios paracas,excavados en el cementerio de Wari Kayán y en los valles de Palpa. Tratándose de una muestra pequeña y no aleatoria, este estudio no pretende dar una respuesta definitiva a las posibles razones detrás de esta práctica en el mundo Paracas.Por el contrario, el objetivo es abrir el camino para la inclusión de este tipo de estudios en la discusión, mostrando su potencialidad y presentando una propuesta de clasificación que nos ha permitido diferenciar tres grupos de individuos: aquellos enterrados en la península de Paracas que estaban asociados a textiles del Horizonte Temprano, los que estaban asociados a textiles del Intermedio Temprano y los que proceden de los valles sureños.

abstract: Studies of ancient pathogens are moving beyond simple confirmatory analysis of diseased bone; bioarchaeologists and ancient geneticists are posing nuanced questions and utilizing novel methods capable of confronting the debates surrounding pathogen origins and evolution, and the relationships between humans and disease in the past. This dissertation examines two ancient human diseases through molecular and bioarchaeological lines of evidence, relying on techniques in paleogenetics and phylogenetics to detect, isolate, sequence and analyze ancient and modern pathogen DNA within an evolutionary framework. Specifically this research addresses outstanding issues regarding a) the evolution, origin and phylogenetic placement of the pathogen causing skeletal tuberculosis in New World prior to European contact, and b) the phylogeny and origins of the parasite causing the human leishmaniasis disease complex. An additional chapter presents a review of the major technological and theoretical advances in ancient pathogen genomics to frame the contributions of this work within a rapidly developing field. This overview emphasizes that understanding the evolution of human disease is critical to contextualizing relationships between humans and pathogens, and the epidemiological shifts observed both in the past and in the present era of (re)emerging infectious diseases. These questions continue to be at the forefront of not only pathogen research, but also bioarchaeological and paleopathological scholarship. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Anthropology 2014

High-elevation environments above 2500 metres above sea level (m.a.s.l.) were among the planet's last frontiers of human colonization. Research on the speed and tempo of this colonization process is active and holds implications for understanding rates of genetic, physiological and cultural adaptation in our species. Permanent occupation of high-elevation environments in the Andes Mountains of South America tentatively began with hunter-gatherers around 9 ka according to current archaeological estimates, though the timing is currently debated. Recent observations on the archaeological site of Soro Mik'aya Patjxa (8.0-6.5 ka), located at 3800 m.a.s.l. in the Andean Altiplano, offer an opportunity to independently test hypotheses for early permanent use of the region. This study observes low oxygen (delta O-18) and high carbon (delta C-13) isotope values in human bone, long travel distances to low-elevation zones, variable age and sex structure in the human population and an absence of non-local lithic materials. These independent lines of evidence converge to support a model of permanent occupation of high elevations and refute logistical and seasonal use models. The results constitute the strongest empirical support to date for permanent human occupation of the Andean highlands by hunter-gatherers before 7 ka.

Sardinia was an island with a history of a malarious environment until eradication efforts were conducted from 1946 to 1950. While historic documents suggest the disease was introduced from North Africa around 500 BC, no study has been conducted to test for the presence of malaria in prehistoric native populations, such as the Nuragic people of the Bronze Age. However, it has been suggested that aspects of the Nuragic culture, for example the stone structures found throughout the island, are adaptations to a malarious environment. The purpose of this dissertation is to test the hypothesis that malaria was present in prehistoric Sardinia. In addition, the value of applying anthropology, pertaining specifically to prehistoric investigations, to understand and combat malaria is supported. To test for the presence of malaria, multiple lines of evidence were used to analyze human skeletal remains from a Middle Bronze Age tomb. Because malaria does not result in a specific pattern of bony responses that can be identified through a gross analysis of the remains, additional lines of evidence were used. These included an osteological analysis for the possible presence of conditions related to malaria (e.g., inherited hemolytic anemias) and the collection of bone samples to test for ancient malaria DNA, Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein II, and the malarial pigment hemozoin. In addition, a review of the literature pertaining to the ecology and history of Sardinia were used with archaeological data to evaluate if it was possible the malaria parasite was affecting humans on the island during prehistory. While it was interpreted that conditions were favorable for malaria to infect individuals during this time, and possible cultural adaptations were noted, no conclusive evidence was found by analyzing skeletal remains. More work is needed to diagnose malaria better in human remains and understand the health of populations in Sardinia during the Bronze Age. Considering the coevolution of malaria parasites, humans, and mosquitoes is a necessary step in developing methods to combat malaria as the parasite and disease vector become more resistant to medicine and insecticides. In particular, applying anthropological methods and theories shows promise for fighting this disease.

This project tests the hypothesis that the Langobard migration into the Roman/Byzantine Veneto (northeastern Italy) resulted in significant dietary changes from Late Antiquity (4-5th centuries AD) to the Early Medieval period (6-8th centuries AD). At the end of the Great Germanic Migrations in AD 568, Langobards from Pannonia entered and occupied two-thirds of the Italian peninsula. It is unclear how large these migrations were, as historical documents exaggerate mass movements; however, conservative estimates suggest they made up 8% of the areas they occupied. The degree to which the Langobards influenced economic change and subsistence in this area is poorly understood. Therefore, the goal of this research is to use stable isotope analyses on human remains in conjunction with historical and archaeological data to understand how the migration of the Langobards influenced the population structure and political economy (diet) in the Veneto. A total of 149 individual bone samples from seven sites spanning the 4-8th centuries AD from the Veneto underwent stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis. In addition, 60 premolars were sampled for stable carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotope analysis to assess migration and dietary changes. Previous paleodietary analyses suggest that the traditional Roman diet consisted of C3 terrestrial plants, such as wheat and barley, and domesticated animals with some contributions from fish. The Langobards consumed a mix of C3 and C4 (millet and sorghum) terrestrial plants and animals. C4 plants such as millet were often considered a low socioeconomic status food source during the Roman Empire. The results indicate that migrating Langobards are not present in the cemetery samples; however, migrating Roman/Byzantines are. This suggests a migration inland from the Byzantine occupied coast for better economic prospects. Byzantine occupied areas in Italy experienced heavy taxations, while the Langobards reduced this burden on the location populations. The dietary analyses show significant differences in diet between local and non-local individuals, with non-local individuals consuming more C3 energy sources (wheat) earlier in life. In terms of overall diet in the Veneto, there appears to be an increase in millet consumption from Late Antiquity to the Early Medieval period. There are no significant differences in socioeconomic status or sex, suggesting that millet became standardized in the Veneto, reflecting a sociocultural change in dietary practices. This research is significant because it fills a geographical and chronological gap in Italian history, during a period of significant migration and economic change.

No description available.

From the years of 1956 through 1977, Archaeologist Robert H. Dyson, Jr., directed the excavations of the archaeological site of Tepe Hasanlu, located in the West Azerbaijan region of Iran. Several archaeological reports of the finds include the overview of over 400 skeletons discovered in Hasanlu’s Lower Mound cemetery, though only 97 were ever retained for osteological analysis. Totaling 113 burials examined, 88-individuals were derived from the Low Mound and 25 individuals were from the High Mound. The excavated artifacts and skeletons are now split between The Pennsylvania Museum and The National Museum of Iran in Tehran. The Upper and Lower Mound burials of Tepe Hasanlu were examined through bioarchaeological, osteological, and archaeological (burial connotations) methodologies in an attempt to reveal the lifestyle, burial practices, and economy of the famous ancient city. It was hypothesized that there is a correlation between pathological conditions, sex, and the perceived economic/social status of the Bronze through Seluco-Parthian burials based on the associated grave goods and sociocultural characteristics viewed and examined within the burial space. This hypothesis was tested through skeletal and archaeological analysis, and it was found that individual pathological conditions correlate with the burial goods classified in Levels 1 and 2, however, Level 0 is more variable. The variations found among the level classifications and the frequencies of their individual pathological conditions reveal a high rate among Level 1 and a low rate among Level 2 burials. Additionally, it is possible that the different associated economic classes at Hasanlu exhibited dissimilar biological susceptibilities, nutrition, health, and lifestyles relating to their pathological conditions. However, this could also be a result of differential sampling, or the burials were excavated from a class-based cemetery. Age was found to be a major factor in the presentation of age-related degenerative pathological conditions, which was especially evident in the dentition of the sampled Hasanlu population. Furthermore, the High and Low Mounds appear to be drastically different in the associated economic class of their burials, as the LM appeared to contain individuals of higher classes (Level 2), and the HM exhibited a preference for burials with little (Level 1) to no grave goods (Level 0). As a result of such, it is theorized that the LM and HM were exhibiting different social structures and values, possibly representing separate societal class structures (egalitarian/non-egalitarian) influenced by economic opportunities or Hasanlu’s influence on the region. From the data examined, it appears that the social preferences exhibited by the Hasanlu peoples was evident in nearly every aspect of the burial space dictated by age, sex, and perceived economic class (Levels 0-2) through the burial characteristics of side, position, goods location, grave construction, interments, and possibly orientation. It is with this data that there are proven differences in the various subjects of archaeology and osteological features within the sampled burial population likely influenced by wealth, lifestyles, and/or various burial preferences.