This study engages in an ethical examination of contemporary socio-ecological and economic issues which takes seriously the plight of Africa, African communities, indigenous knowledge and biodiversity. It studies the impact of bioprospecting, biopiracy and intellectual property rights regimes on the protection, use, access to, and conservation of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge in Africa. The study also examines the ways in which northern multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies and their agents prospect and convert African resources (biological commons and indigenous knowledge) into their intellectual property as well as private property. It argues that the transfer of African biological commons and indigenous knowledge is exacerbated by economic globalisation and the neo-colonial mentality of conquest concealed under the guise of commerce. The study demonstrates through concrete case studies the tactics used by northern multinational corporations to claim these resources as their intellectual property rights and private property. It observes that the privatisation of biological commons and indigenous knowledge only brings about nominal or no benefits to African communities who have nurtured and continue to nurture them. It also observes that this privatisation results in fewer benefits for biodiversity as they lead to the promotion of monoculture, i.e. commercialisation of all things. To address the injustice and exploitative implications of bioprospecting, biopiracy and intellectual property rights, the study recommends the adoption and implementation of the African model law, the establishment of defensive intellectual property rights mechanisms, and the strategy of resistance and advocacy. It suggests that these measures ought to be grounded on the African normative principle of botho and the Christian ethical principle of justice. / Systematic Theology and Theological Ethics / D.Th.(Theological Ethics)

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-11T13:55:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Carolini Siveira.pdf: 52413 bytes, checksum: fb03050abd7aca5339af29064552d74e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-08-21 / With the international dilemma formed, on the one hand, the countries, holders of technology, supported on the devices of the Agreement of the Rights of Intellectual Properties Related to Trade of the World Commerce Organization in order to guarantee that the genetic resources be considered common patrimony of humanity and, on the other hand, the countries, holders of genetic resources, sticked to the Convention on Biological Resources, based on the sovereignity principle of the State to explore its own resources, Law becomes fundamentally important in the intermediation of such antagonistic interests. This conflict is materialized by means of the practice known as biopiracy, which involves as much the genetic resource as the knowledge related to the mentioned resource, damaging mostly countries like Brazil. With the ratification of the Convention of Biological Diversity in 1994 and the edition of the legislation MP nº 2.186-16 in 2001, Brazil regulated affairs that involve the traditional knowledge related to genetic resource. But will this legislation take into account the interests of traditional populations? With the aim to analyse the applicability of Brazilian legislation which regulates the acess to traditional knowledge related to genetic resource of two native populations who inhabit the surroundings of Benjamin Constant city, located in the region of High Solimões River, in Amazonas, Brazil, one denominated Aldeia Kokama, of Kokama ethnic group, and the other Native community of Novo Paraíso, of Ticuna ethnic group. This research founded on the Sociological concept of Law, developed by Bourdieu (1989), and as logical sustainability the systemic abordage of Morin (2002), and employing the case study methodology, more specifically of two cases: the legislation and the human group. Thus, with the development of the research, it was been observed that Brazilian legislation, the MP nº 2.186-16, presents conceptual inaccuration and lack of practicability. With regard to the native populations of Nova Aliança and of Novo Paraíso, it was observed that these human groups develop a relation of community and live daily in an environment little modified in a region of Amazonian Forest which contains high concentration of biodiversity, demonstrating a great knowledge on the genetic resources that sorround them. Nevertheless, their lack of information and of legislative knowledge render impossible the application of such legislation rules and, consequently, the demand of their rights. The analysis of Brazilian legislation which regulates the acess to traditional knowledge related to genetic resource and of the native populations of Nova Aliança and of Novo Paraíso showed the correspondence between both, but with sorrowful confirmation of the inapplicability of the legislation for these people, caused mainly by the lack of information they showed regarding the rights due to them. / Com o dilema internacional formado, de um lado os países detentores de tecnologia, apoiados nos dispositivos do Acordo sobre Aspectos dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual Relacionados com o Comércio (TRIPS), da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC), para garantir que os recursos genéticos sejam considerados patrimônio comum da humanidade, e de outro os países de origem de recursos genéticos, agarrados à Convenção sobre Diversidade Biológica (CDB), baseada no princípio de soberania dos Estados para explorar seus próprios recursos, o Direito torna-se de fundamental importância na intermediação de interesses tão antagônicos. Esse conflito é materializado pela prática conhecida como biopirataria, a qual engloba tanto o recurso genético propriamente dito como o conhecimento que o envolve e, por isso, atinge sobremaneira países como o Brasil. Com a ratificação da CDB em 1994 e a edição da MP nº 2.186-16 em 2001, o Brasil regulamentou questões que envolvem o conhecimento tradicional associado ao recurso genético. Mas será que essa legislação mantém correspondência com os interesses das populações tradicionais? Com o intuito de analisar a aplicabilidade da legislação brasileira que regulamenta o acesso ao conhecimento tradicional associado ao recurso genético em duas populações indígenas localizadas no município de Benjamin Constant, região do Alto Solimões do estado do Amazonas, autodenominadas Aldeia Kokama Nova Aliança, de etnia kokama, e Comunidade Indígena Novo Paraíso, de etnia tikuna, utilizamos como base teórica desta pesquisa o conceito sociológico de Direito desenvolvido por Bourdieu (1989) e como sustentabilidade lógica a abordagem sistêmica de Morin (2002), tendo sido empregada a metodologia estudo de caso, mais especificamente de dois casos: a legislação e o grupo humano. Nesse sentido, com o desenvolvimento do estudo, pode-se dizer que a legislação brasileira, aqui representada pela MP nº 2.186-16, apresenta imprecisão conceitual e falta de executividade. No que tange às populações indígenas de Nova Aliança e de Novo Paraíso, afirma-se que são grupos humanos que transmitem uma relação de coletividade e por conviverem diariamente com um ambiente natural pouco modificado, em uma zona da F loresta Amazônica de alta concentração de biodiversidade, demonstram ter um grande conhecimento sobre os recursos genéticos que os cercam. No entanto, a falta de informação e preparação legislativa desses povos impossibilita a aplicação de tais normas e, conseqüentemente, a exigência de seus direitos. A análise da legislação brasileira que regulamenta o acesso ao conhecimento tradicional associado ao recurso genético e das populações indígenas de Nova Aliança e de Novo Paraíso demonstrou correspondência entre ambas, mas com a triste constatação de negativa de aplicabilidade da legislação a esses povos, ocasionada principalmente pela falta de informação que evidenciaram quanto aos direitos assegurados a eles

Selon les théories classiques du pouvoir, les relations asymétriques favorisent généralement l’acteur le plus puissant en termes de ressources. Toutefois, la partie la plus puissante au niveau de la force et des ressources ne gagne pas toujours dans les négociations. Cela dépend de plusieurs facteurs et notamment des tactiques de négociation de la partie la plus faible. Notre thèse vise justement à analyser un certain nombre de stratégies de négociations que peuvent mener les parties les plus faibles pour obtenir des gains. Afin d’illustrer nos propos, nous avons choisi l’exemple donné par un certain nombre de pays en voie de développement (PVD) pour contester le brevet sur le vivant contenu dans l’Accord sur les aspects des droits de la propriété intellectuelle (ADPIC). Notre objectif a été de comprendre les principales stratégies qu’ils ont employées pour remettre en question cette norme et la rééquilibrer. Afin de réaliser ce travail, nous nous sommes servis du concept d’hégémonie de Gramsci et de cadre emprunté à la littérature des mouvements sociaux. Cela nous a permis de poser l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’Accord sur les ADPIC constitue une norme hégémonique qui avantage essentiellement quelques pays développés et des entreprises internationales. Cependant, cette domination se cache derrière un discours universel et positif visant à susciter une forte adhésion. Ainsi, dans un tel cas de figure, les PVD ne peuvent pas espérer la remettre en question sans un changement de perception. Il faut donc que les règles perçues comme justes et immuables soient cadrées comme injustes et mutables, pour que les pays décident de les contester. Nous avons alors testé cette hypothèse à travers une analyse de contenu du discours officiel des PVD à l’Organisation mondiale du commerce. Ce travail nous a permis d’observer que le cadrage est un instrument important pour lutter contre l’hégémonie d’une norme. En effet, il offre la faculté de montrer que le brevet sur le vivant, loin de présenter que des avantages, est aussi une source de problèmes auxquels il faut apporter des solutions. Le cadre constitue aussi un bon moyen pour élaborer des propositions normatives alternatives. Toutefois, nous avons constaté que cette stratégie est insuffisante pour traduire les propositions des PVD en normes contraignantes. Afin d’obtenir certains changements normatifs, l’élaboration de coalitions s’avère particulièrement pertinente pour les PVD. De même, nous avons noté que les PVD qui demandent des changements normatifs quand la structure des opportunités politiques est ouverte ont plus de chance d’obtenir satisfaction de leurs revendications. La présente thèse nous offre ainsi un portrait général de stratégies de négociation et démontre que sous certaines conditions les parties les plus faibles peuvent obtenir certains gains dans une négociation asymétrique. / According to the classical theories of power, asymmetrical relations generally favor the most powerful actor in terms of resources. However, the most powerful in terms of strength and resources part does not always win in negotiations. This depends on several factors, including negotiation tactics of the weaker party. Our thesis aims to analyze different type of negotiation strategies that weaker parties can use to obtain some benefit. To illustrate this point, we chose the example set by a number of developing countries (DV) to challenge the patenting of life contained in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Our goal was to understand the key strategies they have used to question this norm and rebalance it. To make this work, we used the concept of hegemony conceptualized by Gramsci and the concept of framework borrowed from the literature of social movements. This tool has allowed us to make the assumption that TRIPS is a hegemonic norm that mainly benefit to few developed countries and international companies. However, this domination is hidden by the norms thanks to universal and positive discourse which help to generate strong adhesion. Thus, in such a case, developing countries can’t expect to challenge this norm without a change of perception. It is therefore necessary that the rules perceived as fair and immutable are framed as unjust and mutable, so that countries decide to challenge it. We then tested this hypothesis through a content analysis of the DC’s official discourse at the World Trade Organization. This work has allowed us to observe that the framing is an important tool in the fight against the norm’s hegemony. Indeed, it offers the possibility to show that the patenting of life, far from presenting just a source of benefits, is also a source of problems that need solutions. The frame is also a good way to develop alternative normative propositions. However, we found that this strategy is insufficient to translate DC’s proposals into binding norms. In order to obtain changes in the agreement, building coalitions is particularly relevant for DC. Furthermore, we noted that DC which require regulatory changes when the structure of political opportunities is opened are more likely to obtain what they want. This thesis offers us a general picture of negotiations strategies and reveal that under certain conditions the weaker parties can get some gains in an asymmetrical negotiation.

Sources de convoitises, les ressources naturelles font parfois l'objet d’actes de prédation tels que la biopiraterie. Le phénomène, de plus en plus médiatisé, mais encore largement sous-étudié, est souvent dénoncé comme un véritable pillage des ressources naturelles. En fait, même si elle recouvre une réalité plurielle, la pratique de la biopirateriepeut être caractérisée comme un accaparement des ressources naturelles. Saisie comme telle, il est permis de comprendre comment elle est née et a évolué, ce qui est du plus grand intérêt pour son appréhension. Aussi, parce que la biopiraterie interroge les modalités de partage des ressources naturelles, elle contribue à un renforcement des dimensions solidaristes du statut juridique de ces ressources. Cependant, si des règles existent, elles ne sont pas pleinement satisfaisantes. Cette situation invite à une réflexion plus globale sur le statut juridique de l'environnement et conduisant à le considérer, juridiquement, comme un bien commun. / Because they are highly desired, natural resources are subjected to acts of predation, like biopiracy. The phenomenon draws more and more attention but is still not much studied. It is often condemned as real plundering of natural resources. Indeed, even if it covers a pluralist reality, the biopiracy practice can be characteristic of a monopolizing of naturalresources. Thus, it is possible to understand how it emerged and developed, which is important to comprehend it. Furthermore, biopiracy raises the question of the sharing conditions of natural resources and thereby contributes to strengthen the solidarist dimensions of the natural resources legal status. However, current rules are insufficient. This situation is inviting for a general reflection about the legal status of the environment that leads to consider it as a common good.

This thesis discusses the global regime complex concerning the management of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and how different regimes concerning these resources cooperate or stand in opposition to each other. Because of changes in US patent law and the establishment of TRIPS, patent claims over plant genetic resources has increased dramatically globally. This, amongst other things, in turn has lead to the development of CBD which in turn lead to the creation of access and benefit laws in many countries. To create a free flow of genetic resources for food and agriculture the ITPGRFA, with its multilateral system, were negotiated. The aim of this thesis is to investigate which consequences the regime complex concerning plant genetic resources for food and agriculture can have on the rights of small farmers, agricultural research and food security in the global South. The thesis shows how patents and strict access laws creates a situation where more and more actors has exclusive rights which excludes others from using these, for the global food security, essential resources. Further it is shown that there also are processes going on within the UPOV that risk to take away farmers right to save seeds, and thereby make them dependent on the more and more monopolistic global seed markets dominated by a few multinational corporations. It is established that ITPGRFAs multilateral system is an opening in this hyperownership of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture; but that the international community at the same time has to see to that the patent claims on plant genetic resources not violate farmers’ rights to their resources. / Denna uppsats behandlar det globala regimkomplexet för förvaltningen av växtgenetiska resurser för livsmedel och jordbruk, samt hur avtalen rörande dessa resurser samverkar eller står i motsättning till varandra. I och med förändringar i amerikansk patentlagstiftning och upprättandet av TRIPS har patentanspråk på växtgenetiska resurser ökat dramatiskt, vilket i sin tur påverkade tillkomsten av CBD vilken innefattar upprättandet av lagstiftning rörande tillträde till och den rättvisa fördelningen av nyttor härstammande från, genetiska resurser. För att möjliggöra ett relativt fritt flöde av växtgenetiska resurser har ITPGRFA med dess multilaterala system fram förhandlats. Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka vilka konsekvenser den nuvarande globala förvaltningen av växtgenetiska resurser för livsmedel och jordbruk kan få för jordbruksforskning, småbönders rättigheter och matsäkerhet i Syd. Uppsatsen visar på hur patent och tillträdeslagstiftningar skapar en situation där fler och fler parter innehar rättigheter att utestänga andra från att nyttja dessa, för den globala matsäkerheten, essentiella resurser. Vidare visas på hur det samtidigt pågår processer inom UPOV som riskerar att undanta bönder rätten att spara utsäde och därmed göra dem beroende av de i allt högre grad monopolartade frömarknaderna, vilka domineras av att fåtal multinationella företag. Här konstateras även att ITPGRFAs multilaterala system är en öppning i detta hyperägande, men att det internationella samfundet samtidigt måste försäkra att patentanspråk inte kränker bönders rättigheter till sina resurser.

Les savoirs traditionnels médicinaux c’est-à-dire l’aspect de la médecine traditionnelle portant sur des connaissances relatives au médicament traditionnel à base de plantes, qui part de la collecte des végétaux jusqu’au produit final, constituent un élément important dans la réalisation de la couverture des besoins de santé publique. En Afrique, les savoirs traditionnels médicinaux contribuent selon l’Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) à hauteur de 80% des besoins de santé des populations. Les savoirs traditionnels médicinaux représentent une source d’informations notamment dans la perspective d’une éradication des maladies endémiques du continent africain. L’OMS, et l’Union africaine (UA) voient dans les savoirs traditionnels médicinaux une piste de recherche en vue du développement de nouveaux médicaments à des prix abordables. Leur importance est aussi constatée au niveau de l’industrie du médicament où ils représentent 30% de la recherche dans l’industrie pharmaceutique et l’essentiel des informations dans le secteur des phytomédicaments. Cette appétence pour les savoirs traditionnels médicinaux ainsi que la médiatisation des actes de biopiraterie, ont contribué à renforcer leur valeur (sur les plans scientifique, économique, social et politique) et à justifier la nécessité de les protéger. Cependant, contrairement à la tendance actuelle des pays africains, l’Organisation africaine de la propriété intellectuelle (OAPI), à travers son Accord de Bangui révisé, ne dispose pas de mécanismes de propriété intellectuelle permettant une protection satisfaisante des droits des détenteurs de savoirs traditionnels médicinaux (tradipraticiens, familles, communautés autochtones et locales). Face à ce qui s’apparente à un vide juridique, il convient de s’interroger sur le régime juridique à mettre en place. Autrement dit, quel système sui generis de protection des savoirs traditionnels médicinaux faut-il envisager pour les pays membres de l’OAPI? C’est à cette interrogation que la présente étude se propose d’apporter des éléments de réponses. L’objectif visé sera de démontrer, dans le cadre d’une démarche prospective prenant appui notamment sur les droits de l’homme, le droit international de la propriété intellectuelle, le droit civil, le droit de la biodiversité, et les lois nationales, en particulier, celles de la République du Congo (Brazzaville), qu’il est possible d’établir au sein de l’OAPI un régime juridique cohérent et adapté à même de répondre aux besoins et attentes des différents acteurs intervenant dans l’exploitation de ces créations intellectuelles. / Traditional medical knowledge, which is the aspect of traditional medicine relating to the knowledge of plant-based therapy and which goes from collecting plants to issuing a finished product, is a key component for providing health care coverage for all. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), traditional medical knowledge contributes about 80% of primary health care in Africa. Traditional medical knowledge is perceived as a valuable source of information useful to eradicate African endemic diseases. The WHO and the African Union (AU) consider that traditional medical knowledge is a serious way for researchers to develop new and affordable drugs. Traditional medicinal knowledge is also important for the drug industry where it represents 30% of the researches made in the pharmaceutical sector and constitutes the main source of information in the herbal medicine sector. The drug industry’s increasing interest for traditional medical and the huge media coverage for biopiracy cases strengthened the (scientific, economic, social and politic) value of traditional medicinal knowledge and contribute to justify their protection. However contrary to the current trend in many African countries, it appears that the African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI) and the Bangui Agreement, does not provide any suitable legal protective mechanism for the intellectual property rights of the holders of traditional medical knowledge (traditional healers, families, indigenous and local communities).In view of the limits and weaknesses of the intellectual property mechanisms to provide an effective protection to traditional medicinal knowledge’s holders, it is quite legitimate to question the legal mechanism or system to implement. In other words, what type of sui generis protection OAPI members can enact to protect traditional medicinal knowledge? This is the question that the present study intends to answer. The aim is to demonstrate from a prospective approach with regards to human rights, international intellectual property law, civil law, biodiversity law, and national laws, in particular the ones of the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), that it is possible to build a coherent and adapted legal regime.

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