No description available.

Double-cropping of corn (Zea mays L.) for grain following the harvest of a small grain crop has been under evaluation in Virginia as an alternative cropping strategy (Brann and Pitman, 1997). To assess the potential constraints on late planted corn imposed by insects and diseases, double-cropped corn was evaluated in field experiments in Montgomery County, Virginia from 1998 to 2000. Factors included two near-isoline hybrids (NK4640 and NK4640Bt), insecticides at planting (tefluthrin in all years, 1998-2000; and imidacloprid in 1999 and 2000), and fungicide treatments (azoxystrobin or propiconazole). Response variables included yield, moisture at harvest, grain test weight, damage by European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), damage by corn earworm (Heliothis zea), disease progress curves for gray leaf spot Cercospora zeae-maydis), and number of plants exhibiting virus symptoms. The Bt hybrid performed significantly better than the non-Bt hybrid for yield and test weight in double-cropped corn in 1998 and 2000, but not in 1999. A spatially referenced site suitability analysis was performed for full season and double-cropped corn in Virginia using weighted abiotic factors and constraints. Thornthwaite potential evapotranspiration (PET) and PET minus precipitation were used to identify areas of the state having a lower average moisture deficit during the silking months for double-cropped corn compared to full-season corn. It is concluded that double-cropped corn production is a viable option in Virginia where abiotic factors are not constraining, particularly growing season length and moisture availability during the sensitive stages of development. / Master of Science

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Brinjal shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee) is a major limiting factor in commercial cultivation of eggplant in southeast Asia. Extensive use of pesticides as well as the conventional breeding methods have been ineffective in controlling the borer so there is a need for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies for its control. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is known to produce a variety of insecticidal crystal proteins toxic to lepidopteran, dipteran and coleopteran pests. The Cry2Aa protein has been found to be more toxic to brinjal shoot and fruit borer than Cry1Ab. My objective was to develop eggplant cultivars that express a codon-optimized cry2Aa gene, the sequence of which is based on that of an Indian isolate of Bt, with the eventual goal of producing fully resistant cultivars. The cry2Aa gene was modified for optimal expression in eggplant using the codon usage frequencies based on solanaceous sequences (eggplant, tomato and pepper). The GC content was increased from 34.3% in the native gene to 41.3% in the optimized gene, thus removing the AT-rich regions that are typical for Bt cry genes. Also, other mRNA destabilizing and hairpin forming structure sequences were removed. The gene was synthesized in four different parts with complementary restriction sites. A total of 152 oligonucleotides (oligos) was used to assemble the 1.9 kb gene using dual asymmetric (DA) and overlap extension (OE) PCR techniques. The individual parts were subsequently ligated using the complementary restriction sites and inserted into vector pCAMBIA 1302. Also, the transformation efficiency of 12 different eggplant cultivars was tested using plasmid pHB2892 to predict utility for transformation with the synthetic cry2Aa. / Master of Science

Plants respond to insect and pathogen attack by inducing and accumulating a large set of defense proteins. Colonization of sugarcane stalk by opportunistic fungi, such as Fusarium verticillioides and Colletotrichum falcatum, usually occurs after Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Cambridae) caterpillars attack increasing the damage caused by the borer. Two homologous of BARWIN protein were identified in sugarcane, SUGARWIN1 and SUGARWIN2. Their gene expression is induced in response to wound and Diatraea saccharalis damage. However, the recombinant SUGARWIN protein does not affect insect development; but promotes significant morphological and physiological changes in Fusarium verticillioides and Colletotrichum falcatum, which lead to fungal cell death via apoptosis, indicating that SUGARWINs may work as a first layer of defense against the fungi infection. In this study, we deepen our understanding of the role of SUGARWINs in plant defense and the molecular mechanisms by which these proteins affect fungi by elucidating their molecular targets. Our results show that SUGARWINs play an important role in plant defense against opportunistic pathogens. We demonstrated that SUGARWINs are induced by C. falcatum, and the induction of SUGARWINs can vary among sugarcane varieties. The sugarcane variety exhibiting the highest level of SUGARWIN induction exhibited a considerable reduction in C. falcatum infection. Furthermore, SUGARWIN1 exhibited ribonuclease and chitinase activity, whereas SUGARWIN2 exhibited only chitinase activity. This variable enzymatic specificity seems to be the result of divergent amino acid composition within the substrate-binding site. Additionally, plants attacked by insects and pathogens display profound physiological, morphological and chemical changes or adaptations, which may result in organism attraction or avoidance. In this study, we also aimed to understand the insect-fungi association in sugarcane and the role of fungal volatile compounds in this association. Our results have shown that D. saccharalis positively influences C. falcatum infection on sugarcane, inducing a fast growing when compared to C. falcatum treatment without D. saccharalis attack. In addition, both fungi, C. falcatum and F. verticillioides, have been shown a double effect on D. saccharalis caterpillar, they promoted a strong attraction for insects due volatile organic compound emission and positively influenced D. saccharalis feeding and weight gain in diets supplemented with fungi. Fungal volatile organic compounds from C. falcatum and F. verticillioides were identified and quantified; acoradiene and acorenol were specifically induced by the fungi. These data suggest a synergistic interaction, mediated by organic volatile compounds, between D. saccharalis and the fungi C. falcatum and F. verticillioides in sugarcane. / As plantas respondem ao ataque de insetos e patógenos induzindo e acumulando um grande conjunto de proteínas de defesa. A colonização do caule de cana por fungos oportunistas, como Fusarium verticillioides e Colletotrichum falcatum, geralmente ocorre após o ataque de lagartas de Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Cambridae), resultando no aumento do dano causado pelo inseto. Dois homólogos da proteína BARWIN foram identificados em cana-de-açúcar, SUGARWIN1 e SUGARWIN2. A expressão desses genes é induzida em resposta ao ferimento mecânico e ao ataque de Diatraea saccharalis, entretanto, a proteína não afeta o desenvolvimento do inseto, mas promove alterações morfológicas e fisiológicas significativas em Fusarium verticillioides e Colletotrichum falcatum, causando a morte destes fungos por apoptose. Esses dados indicam que as SUGARWINs podem funcionar como uma defesa inicial contra a infecção fúngica. Neste estudo, aprofundamos nosso entendimento do papel das SUGARWINs na defesa de plantas e os mecanismos moleculares pelos quais essas proteínas afetam os fungos, elucidando seus alvos moleculares. Nossos resultados mostraram que as SUGARWINs desempenham um papel importante na defesa da planta contra patógenos oportunistas. Foi demonstrado que essas proteínas também são induzidas por C. falcatum em cana-de-açúcar, e sua indução pode variar entre as variedades de cana-de-açúcar. A variedade de cana-de-açúcar que apresentou o maior nível de indução de SUGARWINs apresentou uma redução considerável na infecção por C. falcatum. Além disso, SUGARWIN1 exibiu atividade de ribonuclease e quitinase, enquanto que SUGARWIN2 exibiu apenas atividade de quitinase. Esta especificidade enzimática parece ser o resultado da composição divergente de aminoácidos no sítio de ligação do substrato. Além disso, as plantas atacadas por insetos e patógenos exibem profundas alterações fisiológicas, morfológicas e químicas ou adaptações, que podem resultar em atração ou repelência do organismo, dessa forma, estudamos também a associação inseto-fungos na cana-de-açúcar, e o papel dos compostos voláteis fúngicos nessa associação. Nossos resultados mostraram que D. saccharalis influencia positivamente a infecção por C. falcatum em cana-de-açúcar, induzindo crescimento rápido do fungo quando comparado ao tratamento com C. falcatum sem ataque de D. saccharalis. Além disso, ambos os fungos, C. falcatum e F. verticillioides, mostraram um efeito duplo sobre lagartas de D. saccharalis, promovendo uma forte atração desses insetos devido à emissão de compostos orgânicos voláteis e influenciando positivamente a alimentação de D. saccharalis e ganho de peso em dietas suplementadas com fungos. Os compostos orgânicos voláteis fúngicos de C. falcatum e F. verticillioides foram identificados e quantificados; acoradieno e acorenol foram especificamente induzidos pelos fungos. Estes dados sugerem uma interação sinergistica, mediada por compostos orgânicos voláteis, entre D. saccharalis e os fungos C. falcatum e F. verticillioides em cana-de-açúcar.

Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram: avaliar o processo de biodeterioração do lenho das árvores de tipuana na cidade de São Paulo e relacionar as alterações da sua estrutura anatômica e propriedades físico-mecânicas com o seu risco de queda. Nos passeios públicos de regiões selecionadas da cidade, 1109 árvores de tipuana foram caracterizadas quanto às condições de entorno, estado geral, variáveis dendrométricas, biodeterioração externa e interna e o risco de queda, estimado com modelo de cálculo estrutural desenvolvido pelo IPT. A biodeterioração e os mecanismos de resistência das árvores foram avaliados ao nível macroscópico e microscópico. As alterações nas propriedades do lenho de tipuana foram analisadas por densitometria de raios X e pelos ensaios físico-mecânicos (densidade de massa aparente; resistência à flexão) e aplicado o método de elementos finitos para análise da distribuição de tensões no lenho. As árvores de tipuana de elevada idade não apresentaram sinais de declínio, embora com estado geral considerado como crítico, pelo plantio em locais indequados, manejo inapropriado e/ou ocorrência de injúrias. O lenho foi deteriorado por fungos apodrecedores, cupins-subterrâneos e brocas-de-madeira, sendo os fungos e cupins os principais organismos xilófagos, afetando a região do cerne; a associção entre os fungos, os cupins, as variáveis dendrométricas e o risco de queda foram estatisticamente significantes ao nível de 5 %. O cupim-subterrâneo Coptotermes gestroi ocorreu em elevados níveis de infestação nas árvores, sendo considerado, no entanto, como um organismo-praga secundário, fortemente associado com lenho previamente apodrecido por Ganoderma sp.. Os fungos apodrecedores ocorrentes foram classificados como de podridão branca e mole, sendo a primeira mais comum no cerne das árvores. Como mecanismo de resistência à biodeterioração observou-se a compartimentalização do lenho, caracterizada pelo acúmulo de extrativos nas células. Os fungos xilófagos causaram reduções significativas na densidade de massa aparente, tensão de ruptura à flexão estática e módulo de elasticidade em estágios incipiente e intenso de apodrecimento do lenho. Ruptura do tronco e o risco de queda das árvores de tipuana relacionaram-se, principalmente, com a intensidade da deterioração do lenho e com a sua dendrometria. A alteração da distribuição das tensões no lenho foi analisada em relação ao estágio, tamanho e localização da deterioração no tronco das árvores de tipuana. / The objectives of the present work were to evaluate the process of biodeterioration in the wood of tipuana trees in the city of São Paulo and to relate the alterations in the anatomical structures and physical and mechanical properties with there falling risk. In the sidewalks of selected regions of the city, 1109 trees were characterized taking into consideration aspects as surroundings, general conditions, dendrometric variables, external and internal biodeterioration and falling risk estimated by using a structural model developed by IPT. The biodeterioration and the resistance mechanisms of the trees were evaluated at a macro and microscopic levels. The alterations on the wood properties were analysed by X-rays densitometry and by performing physical and mechanical tests (specific gravity; bending resistance); the tension distribution in the wood was analyze by finite-elements method. The old aged trees encountered, did not show any sign of decline, eventhough, the general aspect of their surroundings was critical by the inadequate places they were planted; inappropriate management and/or occurrence of injuries. The trees had their trunks deteriorated by xylophagous organisms, mainly fungi and subterranean-termites, and some wood borer beetle too, which affected the heartwood. The association between the presence of the first two organinsms, the dendrometric variables and the risk of falling, was statistically significant at the 5% level. The infestation of the trees by the subterranean-termite Coptotermes gestroi was at high levels, however, it was considered as a secundary plague-organism, because its attack was strongly associated with the previously decayed heartwood by Ganoderma sp.. The decaying fungi observed were classified as white rot and soft rot, being the white rot more common in the heartwood of the trees. As a resistance mechanism of the trees against biodeterioration, it was observed the compartimentalization of the wood characterized by the accumulation of extractives in the cells. Decaying fungi caused significant reductions in the following wood properties: specific gravity, rupture strength to bending and modulus of elasticity either in incipient or intense decay. Trees trunk rupture and falling risk were associated mainly to biodeterioration intensity and dendrometric variables. The alteration of tension distribution in the wood was analyzed in relation to the stage, size and position of the deterioration in the wood of the trees.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo comparar três métodos de amostragem de adultos do bicho-furão, quais sejam: 1) monitoramento com armadilhas de feromônio sexual; 2) monitoramento do inseto criado no campo em dietas artificiais; 3) previsão baseada em exigências térmicas do inseto. Para complementar tal pesquisa, que visa facilitar o manejo e o controle da praga, foram estudados o nível de controle para o método utilizando-se feromônio sexual e o efeito de agroquímicos sobre a fase adulta do inseto com base no monitoramento mais adequado. Os três métodos de monitoramento de Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927) mostraram eficiência para serem utilizados em condições de campo. O método de monitoramento do bicho-furão por meio de feromônio sexual foi o que exigiu menor mão-de-obra. O método de monitoramento através de exigências térmicas foi aplicável no verão, exigindo fatores de correção para as demais estações do ano. O nível de controle, determinado para o monitoramento com feromônio sexual, foi de 4 a 6 adultos/semana; a partir destes números, as perdas foram maiores a despeito do maior número de aplicações de produtos químicos. Como o tempo de penetração da lagarta do bicho-furão foi rápido (100% em 24 h), com cerca de 42,9% atingindo a polpa em 72 h, torna-se difícil o controle do inseto nesta fase através de produtos químicos ou biológicos. A alta mortalidade larval do bicho-furão durante a penetração no fruto, pode mascarar os resultados de avaliação da eficiência de controle com produtos químicos ou biológicos. O piretróide bifentrine foi eficiente no controle de adultos de E. aurantiana, desde que adicionado a óleo mineral. / The goal of this work was to compare three sampling methods for adult citrus fruit borer, as follows: 1) monitoring with sexual pheromone traps; 2) monitoring of insects reared under artificial diets in the field; 3) Forecasting based on the thermal requirements of the insect. In order to complete this research, which is intended for an easier pest management and control, one studied the control level for the method with sexual pheromone and the effects of agrochemicals on the adult stage of the insect based on the more suitable monitoring. All three methods of Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927) monitoring were efficient under field conditions. The citrus fruit borer monitoring method by means of sexual pheromone was the least laborious one. The monitoring method through thermal requirements was applicable in the summer, requiring correction factors in the remaining seasons of the year. The control level as determined for the sexual pheromone monitoring was 4 to 6 adults/week; following these figures, the losses were greater despite the higher amount of chemicals application. Since the penetration time of the citrus fruit borer was brief (100% in 24h), with approximately 42.9% reaching the pulp in 72h, it is difficult to control the insect at this stage through chemical or biological products. The high larval mortality of the citrus fruit borer during fruit penetration can conceal the results of the control efficiency evaluation with chemical or biological products. Pyrethroid bifenthrin was efficient to control adult E. aurantiana provided that mineral oil was added.