Since the discovery of DNA packaging into chromatin, and McClintock's (1951) work on position-effect variegation providing evidence of non-mendelian inheritance, the principal of a genome maintaining 'on' and 'off' states has been widely adopted. However, the underlying mechanisms that regulate these dynamic chromatin states and their effect on disease are still poorly understood. DNA methylation and histone trimethylation at H3K9 and H4K20 are the core hallmarks of the heterochromatic constitutively 'off' state. Constitutive heterochromatin is predominantly comprised of repetitive satellite containing pericentromeric regions and telomeres and in mouse heterochromatin clusters into large chromocenters. These regions are cytologically more compact and generally transcriptionally silent across embryonic and differentiated mouse cell types. However, in addition to increased genomic instability, mouse tumour cells sustain increased satellite expression suggesting constitutive heterochromatin is disrupted. Therefore how constitutive heterochromatin is maintained has important implications for genome regulation and disease, and remains poorly understood. While satellite DNA sequences are not evolutionarily conserved, pericentromeric and telomeric heterochromatin occurs across species. Heterochromatin formation is therefore independent of the underlying DNA sequence, supporting the hypothesis that epigenetic components can regulate chromatin structure. DNA methylation is generally thought to be associated with transcriptional silencing and chromatin compaction. However, Gilbert et al (2007) showed that the complete loss of DNA methylation did not affect the compaction at heterochromatin or global genome compaction. The role of H3K9me3 in regulating heterochromatin has also been an area of keen interest. H3K9me3 patterns are established by suppressor of variegation 3-9 homologues and provide the binding site for heterochromatic protein 1 [HP1] which can in turn recruit Suv39h1. This Suv3-9h-HP1-H3K9 axis enables its propagation throughout heterochromatin. Peters et al (2001) demonstrated that in mice loss of suv39 homologues 1 and 2 caused a loss of H3K9me3 at constitutive heterochromatic domains. These Suv39h null mice demonstrated decreased genome stability, and an increased prevalence of oncogenesis. However cytological chromocenters are still present in the absence of H3K9me3. Therefore the function of H3K9me3 as a causative agent in heterochromatin formation is still debated. Broadly the aim was to investigate the phenotypic role of heterochromatic epigenetic components in cancer progression, and address whether H3K9me3 effects large scale chromatin structure. To identify heterochromatic gene silencing components, an inhibitor screen was performed in an artificial silenced reporter system. The reporter fluorophore was silenced by the presence of centromeric arrays from yeast/bacterial artificial chromosomes and human alpha satellite repeats enriched for H3K9me3. To address the function of the de-silencing components identified in cancer, the fitness of colon cancer cells [HCT116] was investigated before and after the development of resistance to the MEK inhibitor trametinib. The most intriguing result was that BET protein inhibition resulted in derepression of the reporter construct and trametinib resistant HCT116 cells were more sensitive to BET inhibitors, while subsequent investigation showed HP1 protein levels were altered. Analysis of publically available datasets of tumour drug resistance, showed elevated BET protein binding at HP1 promoters in resistant cell lines suggesting an indirect role in gene silencing. To investigate the consequence of H3K9me3 loss on chromatin structure, mouse embryonic stem cells that lacked both Suv39 homologues were used. Microccocal nuclease digestion and sucrose sedimentation demonstrated a global decompaction of large-scale chromatin fibres whilst re-expression of suv39h1 rescued H3K9me3 at chromocenters and global chromatin decompaction. Loss of Suv39h also increased chromatin associated RNA levels that were also rescued by Suv39h1 re-expression. This suggests that H3K9me3 has a role chromatin fibre compaction globally as well as at constitutive heterochromatin, potentially mediated by chromatin associated RNA. To conclude, multiple components were identified that are involved in transcriptional silencing. Evaluating their function in tumour progression demonstrated a possible role of BET proteins in the development of MEKi resistance that may be mediated through HP1 proteins. H3K9me3 and its binding partner HP1 affect global chromatin compaction. The global decompaction after Suv39h loss correlates with an increase in chromatin associated RNA, suggesting a possible mechanism for changes in chromatin compaction beyond H3K9me3.

Terminally differentiated B cells are responsible for antibody generation, a key component of adaptive immunity. IgG antibodies play an important role in defence against infection but can be pathogenic in some autoimmune diseases and in solid organ transplantation. In addition to antibody generation, there is increasing interest in the antibody-independent functions of B cells, including their ability to regulate immune responses via the production of IL10. In this thesis I firstly explored the therapeutic potential of belimumab, an anti-BLyS antibody, in an experimental medicine study in kidney transplant recipients. The rationale for this study was based on published studies showing that B cells activate alloreactive T cells and secrete human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and non-HLA antibodies that negatively affect graft function and survival, but may also play a protective role by regulating alloimmune responses promoting transplant tolerance. B-Lymphocyte Stimulator (BLyS) is a cytokine that promotes B cell activation and survival. We performed the first randomized controlled trial using belimumab as early maintenance immunosuppression in kidney transplantation. In belimumab-treated subjects, we demonstrate a reduction in naïve and activated memory B cells, plasmablasts, IgG transcripts in peripheral blood and new antibody formation as well as evidence of reduced CD4 T cell activation and of a skewing of the residual B cell compartment towards an IL10-producing regulatory phenotype. This experimental medicine study highlights the potential of belimumab as a novel therapeutic agent in transplantation. In the second part of my project I performed a preclinical study investigating the potential efficacy of bromodomain inhibitors in reducing antibody-mediated immune cell activation. Immune complexed antigen can activate mononuclear phagocytes (MNP), comprising macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), via ligation of Fc gamma receptors (FcγR), that bind the Fc region of IgG. FcγR-dependent MNP activation results in profound changes in gene expression that mediate antibody effector function in these cells. The resulting inflammatory response can be pathological in the setting of autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and in antibody-mediated rejection in transplantation. BET proteins are a family of histone modification 'readers' that bind acetylated lysine residues within histones and function as a scaffold for the assembly of complexes that regulate gene transcription. Bromodomain inhibitors (I-BET) selectively inhibit the transcription of a subset of inflammatory genes in macrophages following toll-like receptor stimulation. Since MNPs make a key contribution to antibody-mediated pathology, we sought to determine the extent to which I-BET inhibits macrophage and DC activation by IgG. We show that I-BET delays phagolysosome maturation associated with build-up of immune complex (IC) whilst selectively inhibiting IC induced cytokine production. I-BET changed MNP morphology, resulting in a less adherent phenotype, prompting an assessment of its impact on DC migration. In vitro, in a three-dimensional collagen matrix, IgG-IC induced augmentation of DC chemotaxis to chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 19 (CCL19) was abrogated by the addition of I-BET. In vivo, two photon imaging showed that systemic I-BET treatment reduced IC-induced dermal DC mobilisation. Tissue DCs and transferred DC also had reduced migration to draining lymph nodes following I-BET treatment. These observations provide mechanistic insight into the potential therapeutic benefit of I-BET in the setting of antibody-associated inflammation.

No description available.

Chemical probes are necessary for elucidating the biochemical roles of proteins. Bromodomains are protein-interaction modules found in a family of proteins implicated in the epigenetic regulation of transcription; however, the individual roles remain unknown for many bromodomain proteins, without potent and selective ligands available to assist in their study. From lead compounds, a structure-based drug discovery program was to be explored with the use of biophysical assays and appropriate chemical methods to expediate development of probes against a number of these proteins. A fragment lead against BRD4 was developed into PNZ5, a potent (K_D 5 nM) BRD4 probe with a high ligand efficiency. Although enantioselective syntheses and the use of an alternative synthetic route were unsuccessful, PNZ5 showed cytotoxic activity against gastric cancer cell lines that had proved resilient to existing anticancer agents. Optimisation of a lead compound against BRD9 resulted in the development of LP99, the first reported BRD7/9 probe, that was potent (BRD9 K_D 99 nM, BRD7 K_D 909 nM), selective amongst bromodomain proteins and active in cells. An enantioselective synthesis was performed using chiral organocatalyts and LP99 was used to identify a previously unknown role of BRD7/9 in the regulation of inflammatory processes. Research is ongoing to assess further biochemical roles of these proteins with LP99. Arising from a more potent lead against BRD9, a series of structurally related compounds were synthesised to explore SAR around this ligand, however no improvement on the affinity of the lead was realised. Finally, based on disclosed lead structures against PCAF, a series of compounds were synthesised to replicate their activity. A number of important binding interactions were assessed and a lead structure was identified (K_D 1 μM). Development is ongoing to progress this lead into the first reported PCAF probe.

Le p300/CBP acétyltransférase est un co-activateur transcriptionnel très important qui est impliqué dans la régulation d'un grand nombre de processus biologiques, comme la transcription d'ADN, le développement et l'immunité innée. Jusqu'à présent, le rôle de p300/CBP dans la régulation de l'expression des gènes a été largement étudiée, mais les mécanismes qui régulent son activité enzymatique sont encore peu connus. Des études ont montré que le dysfonctionnement de p300/CBP est associé à plusieurs formes de cancer et de maladies neurodégénératives. Dés lors, chaque progrès concernant les mécanismes de régulation de p300/CBP est devenu primordial pour le développement de nouvelles thérapies. Le 'noyau' de p300/CBP contient deux domaines pour la reconnaissance des modifications post-traductionnelles (MPTs), un bromodomaine et un PHD finger (le module BP), adjacent à un domaine HAT (ou domaine histone acétyltransférase). Plusieurs enzymes, modifiant la chromatine, contiennent des domaines de reconnaissance des MPTs. Fréquemment des groupements particuliers de ces domaines sont très conservés et liés, au sein de la même protéine ou du même complexe protéique, suggérant qu'ils réalisent des fonctions coordonnées. Ces domaines adjacents peuvent agir en concertation dans la reconnaissance simultanée de différents MPTs ou peuvent exercer des fonctions différentes de celles qui sont effectuées par ces deux domaines particuliers, tels que les fonctions de régulation enzymatique. Plusieurs études suggèrent que les cycles acétylation/désacétylation dans la boucle d'auto-inhibition, à l'intérieur du domaine HAT, jouent un rôle important dans la régulation de l'activité enzymatique de p300/CBP. La proximité du module BP et du domaine HAT suggère que la spécificité de liaison, appartenant au module BP, peut être intrinsèquement liée à la régulation de l'activité du domaine HAT. L'objectif de ma thèse est de déterminer le rôle du module BP dans la régulation de l'activité du domaine HAT. Je propose que le module BP soit impliqué dans la régulation de p300/CBP de deux façons. La première consiste à établir un lien avec le domaine HAT qui stabilise la conformation auto-inhibée de l'enzyme. La deuxième exige que le module BP joue un rôle dans le choix des substrats de p300/CBP. J'ai été en mesure de montrer que BP peut se lier au domaine HAT et à la chromatine modifiée et qu'il peut reconnaître les modifications effectuées par p300/CBP lui-même. Les données obtenues indiquent que le module BP peut être impliqué dans la régulation de l'activité de p300/CBP et dans son ciblage à la chromatine. / The p300/CBP acetyltransferase is an important transcriptional co-activator which is involved in regulating a wide range of biological processes, such as DNA transcription, development and innate immunity. To date, the role of p300/CBP in gene regulation has been extensively described but little is known about the mechanisms which regulate its activity. Since misregulation of p300/CBP has been associated to the development of several forms of cancers and neurodegenerative diseases, studies directed to decipher the mechanisms of regulation of p300/CBP are of great importance for the development of new therapies. The p300/CBP 'core' contains two post-translational modifications (PTMs) recognition motifs, a bromodomain and a PHD domain (the bromo-PHD module, BP), in close proximity to a histone acetyltransferase domain (HAT). Many chromatin modifying enzymes contain recognition modules for PTMs. Frequently particular groupings of such modules are conserved and linked within the same protein or the same multisubunit complex, suggesting that they perform concerted functions. These linked modules may act combinatorially to allow recognition of multiple PTMs or display new functions that are not possessed by the single modules, such as regulatory properties. Accumulating evidence suggests that acetylation/deacetylation in a conserved autoinhibitory loop of the p300/CBP HAT domain plays an important role in regulation of HAT activity. The close apposition of the BP module and the HAT domain suggests that BP substrate recognition is intrinsically linked to regulation of HAT activity. During my thesis work, I have investigated the role of BP in HAT regulation. I propose that the BP module is involved in p300/CBP regulation by binding to the HAT domain and stabilizing the autoinhibited conformation of the enzyme. I have also investigated substrate specificity of the BP module towards modified chromatin. I could show that the BP module binds histone modifications including those that are p300/CBP dependent. Altogether, the data suggests that the BP module is involved in regulating p300/CBP HAT activity and in targeting of chromatin.

BRDT et la réorganisation de la chromatine au cours de la spermatogénèsePendant la spermiogenèse, phase haploïde de la gamétogenèse mâle, le génome mâle subit une réorganisation majeure, durant laquelle la plupart des histones sont enlevées et remplacées par les protéines de transition (TP) et les protamines. Ce processus conduit à la compaction extrême du génome mâle au sein du noyau du spermatozoïde.Dans les spermatides allongées, les histones sont hyperacetylées juste avant leur éviction. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que cette acétylation massive des histones pourrait être un signal pour l'enlèvement des histones et le recrutement de la machinerie de remodelage de la chromatine. BRDT est une protéine spécifique du testicule, appartenant à la famille BET, qui possède deux bromodomaines capables de reconnaitre les histones acétylées et qui a la capacité unique de compacter la chromatine hyperacétylée (Pivot-Pajot et al., 2003). Le premier bromodomaine de BRDT apparait crucial pour ces fonctions (Morinière et al., 2009). Les souris porteuses d'une délétion du premier bromodomaine de BRDT, BD1, présentent une stérilité des mâles associée à des anomalies survenant lors de la spermiogenèse (Shang et al, 2007). Nous avons pu caractériser la fonction physiologique du premier bromodomaine de BRDT et montrer son rôle crucial dans le remplacement des histones hyperacétylées par les TP et les protamines au cours de la spermiogenèse.Afin d'explorer les fonctions potentielles des autres domaines de BRDT, nous avons étudié des souris ayant une invalidation génétique complète de Brdt. Cette perte de BRDT engendre aussi une stérilité mâle, mais le phénotype montre une absence totale de cellules post-méiotiques. Enfin, un troisième modèle de souris a été obtenu suite à notre tentative de produire des souris porteuses d'une version tagguée de la protéine. L'exploration de ces modèles a permis de démontrer un rôle de BRDT, indépendant de la présence de BD1, dans la régulation du programme d'expression des gènes lors de l'entrée en méiose.BRDT possède à la fois une fonction méiotique et post-méiotique avec l'implication de différents domaines protéiques. / Involvement of BRDT in chromatin reorganization during spermatogenesisDuring spermiogenesis, the haploid phase of male gametogenesis, the male genome undergoes a major chromatin reorganization, during which most histones are removed and replaced by transition proteins (TP) and protamines. This process led to the extreme compaction of the genome in the male sperm nucleus.In elongating spermatids, histones are hyperacetylated just before their eviction. We have hypothesized that acetylation of histones mass could be a signal for the removal of histones and recruitment of chromatin remodeling machinery. BRDT is a testis-specific protein, xhich belongs to the BET family, which has two bromodomains able to recognize acetylated histones and has the unique ability to compact hyperacetylated chromatin (Pivot-Pajot et al., 2003). The first of bromodomain BRDT appears crucial for these functions (Morinière et al., 2009). Mice carrying a deletion of the first bromodomaine BRDT, BD1, exhibit male sterility associated with abnormalities occurring during spermiogenesis (Shang et al, 2007). We were able to characterize the physiological function of the first bromodomaine BRDT and demonstrate its crucial role in the replacement of hyperacetylated histones by TP and protamines during spermiogenesis.To explore the potential functions of other domains of the BRDT protein, we have studied mice with invalidation of the Brdt gene. This loss of BRDT also produces male sterility, but the phenotype shows a complete lack of post-meiotic cells. A third mouse model was obtained following our attempt to produce mice with a version of taggued protein. The exploration of these models has demonstrated a role of BRDT, independent of the presence of BD1, in regulating the program of gene expression during entry into meiosis.BRDT has both functions in meiotic and post-meiotic meiotic with the involvement of different protein domains.

Submitted by Gabriel Dalio Bernardes da Silva (gabriel.dalio@hotmail.com) on 2018-06-12T15:44:12Z No. of bitstreams: 1 20180612093911dissertacao_qualificacao_gabriel_dalio_bernardes_da_silva_versaodefesa_v7corrigida.pdf: 5205153 bytes, checksum: 319a6ecb19a6cb45143cf48f67831acd (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Irani Coito null (irani@fcfar.unesp.br) on 2018-06-13T20:48:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_gdb_me_arafcf_int.pdf: 5205153 bytes, checksum: 319a6ecb19a6cb45143cf48f67831acd (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-13T20:48:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_gdb_me_arafcf_int.pdf: 5205153 bytes, checksum: 319a6ecb19a6cb45143cf48f67831acd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-05-29 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / A anemia falciforme (AF) é uma das doenças hematológicas genéticas mais prevalentes no mundo. Atualmente, as estratégias terapêuticas visando aumento dos níveis de hemoglobina fetal (HbF) contribuem significativamente na redução da morbidade e mortalidade associadas à doença. A compreensão dos mecanismos moleculares responsáveis pelo silenciamento gênico para produção de hemoglobina fetal pode permitir o desenvolvimento de fármacos indutores de HbF mais efetivos e seguros. Durante a eritropoiese, a expressão gênica de gama-globina é silenciada, em partes, pela ligação de um complexo protéico contendo entre outras proteínas a GATA-1, que se liga em sítios próximos aos promotores do gene de gama-globina impedindo o processo de transcrição. Especificamente, o recrutamento de GATA-1 é realizada pelo bromodomínio-3 (BRD-3). Neste trabalho, nossa hipótese foi a de que a inibição de BRD-3 possa constituir uma nova abordagem terapêutica capaz de promover o aumento dos níveis de HbF. Para tal, foi realizado um estudo prévio de triagem virtual com 2.2 milhões de moléculas, em que se identificaram alguns candidatos a ligantes do bromodomínio-3 (BRD-3). A partir destes, e aplicando a técnica do planejamento de fármacos baseado em fragmentos (FBDD), foi realizado um estudo de docagem molecular (docking) destes derivados, a fim de se explorar o padrão de substituição mais adequado para as interações com os resíduos de aminoácidos presentes no BRD-3. Os compostos finais apresentaram interações com os resíduos de asparagina-116, prolina-58, glutamina-61 e triptofano-57 e valores de docking score entre -10,357 kcal/mol e -7,152 kcal/mol. Foram sintetizados, identificados e caracterizados doze compostos inéditos planejados como inibidores de BRD-3 com rendimentos reacionais de até 86%. Os compostos apresentaram inibição enzimática atingindo valores de até 80% para BRD-3 (BD1). Após 24 horas, o composto 4-ciano-N-(1,3-dioxoisoindolin-5-il) benzamida foi capaz de induzir os valores de gama-globina em cultura de células K562. Estes resultados sugerem que este composto é um novo protótipo, inibidor de BRD-3, capaz de atuar como indutor da expressão de gama-globina. / 16/08880-8

Bromodomains bind to acetylated lysine residues 1 to mediate a wide range of biological processes, including the assembly of transcriptional machinery at modified histones. This thesis describes the design of small molecule inhibitors of bromodomains, with particular focus on the bromodomain of CREBBP. A fragment based approach was employed to investigate bicyclic amides as acetyl lysine mimics. Initially the benzoxazinone scaffold (BNZ) 2 was shown to be a novel, ligand efficient bromodomain inhibitor. Structure based elaboration of the BNZ scaffold was employed to direct substitutions towards the region of CREBBP with greatest variability compared to other bromodomains. Ultimately, the compounds in this series were limited to micromolar affinity for CREBBP, but provided useful structure activity relationships. Subsequently the dihydroquinoxalinone scaffold (DHQN) 3 was also shown to be a novel acetyl lysine mimic. Attachment of the optimum side group identified in the BNZ series led to the discovery of the first sub micromolar inhibitor of CREBBP. A co crystal structure with CREBBP revealed that the side group of this compound bound in a newly identified induced fit pocket, mediated by a cation π interaction. A combination of structural, functional and computational studies confirmed that the cation π interaction contributed significantly towards the binding affinity of these ligands. Further work to elaborate the DHQN core, or develop an alternative acetyl lysine mimic into a CREBBP inhibitor, did not lead to an improvement. However, the optimum compound 4 was shown to displace CREBBP from chromatin in a cell based assay. Overall, cyclic amide based fragments were developed as CREBBP inhibitors, providing some of the first bromodomain ligands with nanomolar affinity outside of the BET family. In the process, key structural information about binding of ligands to CREBBP was revealed. Compound 4 provides a tool with which to study the biological implications of aberrant CREBBP activity and to investigate the therapeutic potential of bromodomain inhibition.

Malgré les progrès évidents sur la compréhension de la carcinogénèse, l’incidence des cancers est toujours en augmentation. C’est pourquoi les besoins en nouveaux traitements sont importants. Notre travail de thèse a porté sur l’évaluation pharmacologique d’une nouvelle molécule anticancéreuse, l’OTX015. Cette petite molécule de synthèse a la propriété d’inhiber les protéines bromodomaines (famille des BET) qui jouent un rôle clé dans les mécanismes épigénétiques et dont la dérégulation favorise l’apparition de cancers en particulier des hémopathies malignes. Des études précliniques in vitro sur plusieurs lignées cellulaires d’hémopathies malignes et in vivo sur des souris xénogreffées ont permis de mettre en évidence les propriétés antitumorales de l’OTX015. Une méthode de dosage des concentrations plasmatiques d’OTX015 par UPLC-MS/MS a été développée et validée afin d’évaluer sa pharmacocinétique chez les patients inclus dans un protocole d’escalade de doses de phase I. Dans un premier temps, la PK de l’OTX015 a été modélisée par une approche de population et dans un second temps un modèle PK-PD a été construit pour pouvoir évaluer le profil de la tolérance (nombreuses thrombopénies) de cette nouvelle molécule. / Despite obvious progress in carcinogenesis understanding, the incidence of cancer is still increasing. Therefore, the need of new treatments remains important. Our thesis focused on the pharmacological evaluation of a new anticancer drug, OTX015. This small synthetic molecule inhibits the bromodomain proteins (BET) that play a key role in epigenetic mechanisms. Downregulation of BRDs promotes cancer occurrence including hematological malignancies. Preclinical evidences obtained from in vitro and in vivo studies in xenograft mice, suggest that OTX015 has antitumor properties. An ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry detection method was developed and validated in order to measure OTX015 plasma concentrations. Its pharmacokinetics in patients enrolled in a phase I dose-escalation study was then evaluated. The OTX015 PK parameters were estimated by a population approach and PK-PD modeling was developed in order to evaluate the tolerance and safety (thrombocytopenia) of this new drug.

Malaria is a major public health problem that affects millions of lives globally. The increased burden of malaria requires new interventions that will address the eradication of the disease. Current interventions include vector control by using insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying, and antimalarial drugs to control the parasite. Parasite resistance has been reported for the currently used effective antimalarial drugs. To pre-empt the impact of parasite resistance a continued development of new antimalarial drugs that have novel mechanisms of action should be pursued. Antimalarial drug discovery requires that potential antimalarial drugs should have different drug targets to those already targeted, to lower the chances of resistance. Potential antimalarial drugs should preferably provide a single radical cure to prevent reproduction at all life cycle stages. This study tested the effects of in silico designed compounds targeting plasmodial Ca2+- dependent protein kinases (CDPK) 1 & 4, FIKK kinases and bromodomain proteins on the Plasmodium parasite. These enzymes are involved in gene regulation and are important factors during gene transcription. In P. falciparum the gatekeeper kinases contain small hydrophobic pockets near the ATP-binding site. These hydrophobic pockets allow for selective inhibition of these proteins at the ATP-binding site. The compounds were tested in vitro to determine their antiplasmodial activity. These compounds are shown to be potential inhibitors of the intra-erythrocytic P. falciparum parasites as three of the compounds showed selective cytotoxic activity at less than 1 μM against the chloroquine sensitive laboratory strains (3D7 and NF54). Even though the proteins targeted by these compounds have been previously indicated to play a role at specific stages during the parasite’s life cycle, the compounds tested here were not able to target the sexual gametocyte stages of the Plasmodium parasite. Further optimisation of these compounds should be performed to improve activity against both the asexual and sexual stages of the parasites. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2017. / Pharmacology / MSc / Unrestricted