Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / This dissertation consists of two essays on nonprofit finance. Nonprofit finance concerns obtaining and managing financial resources to support the social purposes of nonprofit organizations. A unique feature of nonprofit finance is that nonprofits derive revenue from a variety of sources. Nonprofit finance thus involves answering two fundamental questions: What is the optimal combination of revenue sources that supports a nonprofit to achieve its mission? Where and how to obtain the revenue sources? The two dissertation essays address these two questions respectively. The first essay, titled “Modern Portfolio Theory and the Optimization of Nonprofit Revenue Mix,” is among the first to properly apply modern portfolio theory (MPT) from corporate finance to nonprofit finance. By analyzing nonprofit tax return data, I estimate the expected return and risk characteristics for five nonprofit revenue sources as well as the correlations among these returns. I use the estimates to identify the efficient frontiers for nonprofits in different industries, based on which nonprofit managers can select an optimal portfolio that can minimize the risk given a preferred level of service provision or maximize the return given a level of risk. The findings also pose a challenge to the predominant approach used in previous nonprofit finance studies (Herfindahl-Hirschman Index) and suggest that MPT is theoretically and practically more helpful in guiding nonprofit revenue management. The second essay, titled “Charitable Giving in Nonprofit Service Associations: Identities, Incentives, and Gender Differences,” concerns nonprofit resource attainment, specifically, how do decisionmaking contexts and framing affect donations. Membership in a service club is characterized by two essential elements: members’ shared interest in the club’s charitable mission; and private benefits that often come as a result of social interactions with other members, such as networking, fellowship, and fun. A laboratory experiment was designed to examine 1) whether membership in a service club makes a person more generous and 2) the effect of service club membership—stressing either the service or socializing aspects—on individual support for collective goods. The study finds that female individuals are the least generous when they are reminded of the socializing aspect of service-club membership.

Les six pays qui forment le Conseil de Coopération du Golfe (CCG) disposent encore collectivement de vastes réserves de pétrole et de gaz. Mais pour combien de temps ? Arabie Saoudite, Bahreïn, Émirats Arabes Unis, Koweït, Oman et Qatar n’ont pendant longtemps imposé que les sociétés pétrolières étrangères. Conscients de la limite de la manne pétrolière, ils cherchent depuis plusieurs années à diversifier leur assise économique en attirant toujours plus d'investissements directs étrangers, autres que pétroliers. Un droit fiscal commun, applicable aux activités commerciales et industrielles des entreprises étrangères, a ainsi vu le jour en Arabie Saoudite, au Koweït, en Oman et au Qatar. Ce régime fiscal se distingue à la fois par de faibles taux d’imposition et par le renforcement permanent des moyens de recouvrement et de contrôle des opérations internationales des entreprises étrangères. Les entreprises françaises qui opèrent dans cette région bénéficient toujours, en application des conventions contre la double imposition, d’une suppression des retenues à la source sur leurs revenus issus des pays du CCG. C’est un avantage fiscal considérable par rapport à leurs homologues domiciliées dans d'autres pays occidentaux. Mais aujourd’hui, les sociétés françaises doivent faire face à une politique fiscale plus « agressive ». Elles sont confrontées à des systèmes fiscaux attractifs mais évolutifs, très diversifiés et de plus en plus coercitifs. / The six Arab states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) still hold collectively vast reserves of oil and gas. But for how much longer? Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar have for a long time taxed only foreign oil companies. Aware of the limits of the oil godsend, these countries are currently seeking to diversify their economic basis by drawing in ever more foreign direct investment outside of the fossil fuel sector. New taxation laws applicable to foreign commercial and industrial activities have therefore been enacted in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar. These laws share two main characteristics: low tax rates and strengthened measures to collect taxes and control the international operations of foreign companies. Under double taxation treaties, French companies operating in that region still enjoy exemption from withholding tax on their GCC revenue. That is a considerable advantage compared to their counterparts based in other Western countries. Yet French companies must now encounter an "aggressive" fiscal policy. They are confronted with attractive fiscal systems but constantly changing, diverse and coercive.

台灣的經濟主要以外銷為導向，近年來因為中國大陸經濟崛起，隨著兩岸經濟的逐漸開放，供應商產業外移，無論傳統產業或高科技產業製造相關企業，西進中國大陸已成台灣產業發展主流，貿易商採用多角貿易進行各種不同商業活動方式早已發展為台灣企業從事國際多角貿易的交易模式，而現行稅務主管機關對傳統外銷之各項租稅規定、法令規範、稽徵程序、實務審核作業規範等，對於台灣產業國際多角貿易類型，產生許多租稅疑義。因此，本論文以問卷調查方法，探討台灣企業從事國際多角貿易面臨之租稅相關議題，以提出改進我國企業從事國際多角貿易之相關租稅規範建議，供政府主管機關參考。 　　本文的問卷結果顯示，國際多角貿易之營業比重在台灣產業已占有舉足輕重之地位，且超過50%受訪企業認為，公司從事國際多角貿易交易與傳統直接外銷，不論在經濟實質、權利義務或風險瑕疵責任歸屬，兩者均相同。有70%以上之受訪企業表示對現行加值型營業稅及營利事業所得稅，在適用上產生困擾。雖然，現行法令對於公司從事國際多角貿易交易收入有銷貨及勞務之區分，但本文的問卷結果顯示有超過80%以上受訪企業認為企業從事國際多角貿易交易的性質係屬銷貨行為，並希望財政部簡化現行對國際多角貿易交易之課稅規範。 　　本論文建議，要健全國際多角貿易課稅規範，消弭國際多角貿易之租稅疑議，首先，必須打破現行課稅法令對國際多角貿易區分由國內出貨或第三地出貨，依出貨地是否在中華民國境內而有不同認定之迷失。其次，對國際多角貿易之會計處理應回歸交易實質，不應藉由課稅之考量來左右會計基礎之入帳原則。最後，財政部應簡化現行對國際多角貿易之課稅規範，減少企業因複雜之課稅規定而將第三地出貨之多角貿易收入規避不列入台灣之營業收入。 / Taiwan's economy is primarily export-oriented. In recent years, because of the rise of economy in mainland China, with cross-strait economy liberalization and relocation of suppliers, both traditional and high technology industry businesses have been moving to mainland China as mainstream of Taiwan's industrial development. Multi-lateral transactions have been adopted by Taiwanese companies in engaging in various international business activities. However, tax laws and regulations, as well as assessment procedures adopted by Taiwan tax authorities, on multi-lateral business have triggered many tax disputes. Therefore, with surveys by questionnaires, this study aims to investigate into the relevant tax issues in the multi-lateral international trade of Taiwanese enterprises and propose suggestions for the tax authorities to improve Taiwan tax treatment on multi-lateral international trade. 　　The questionnaire results show that multi-lateral international trade has become a dominant business model in Taiwan industry, more than 50% of the respondents consider both multi-lateral international trade transactions and the traditional direct export are the same, with respect to economic substance, rights and obligations or liability risks of the transactions. More than 70% of the respondents indicate that they have encountered problems when applying to the existing value-added tax law and business income tax law. Although the existing reguations for companies engaging in multi-lateral international trade transactions classify such transactions into sales and services in their respective tax treatments, the questionnaire results show that more than 80% of the respondents consider such transactions should be all regarded as sales of goods, and urge the Ministry of Finance to simplify the existing taxation on such transactions. 　　This paper proposes the following suggestions to make taxation on multi-lateral international transactions more reasonable and enforceable. First of all, the existing taxation on multi-lateral international trade should not classify such transactions as domestic shipment or third place shipment solely by whether the shipping point is in the territory of Republic of China or not. Second, the accounting for international multi-lateral trade should reflect the substance of such transactions instead of following the tax law treatment. Third, the Ministry of Finance should simplify the existing tax treatment for multi-lateral international trade to prevent Taiwanese enterprises from under-reporting multi-lateral international trade revenues derived from third place shipment in filing Taiwan business income tax because of the complexity of the exitng tax regulations.

In support of a short dissertation entitled - "A critical review of the source and residence principles of taxation of income : A place for both principles in the South African tax system?" Qbjeetives To review and critically examine the application of the source and reside.nce principles regarding the taxption of income in South Africa, and to reveal the extent of the existence and application of a hybrid tax system in respect of the source and residence principles. To examine the legal principles and policy considerations arising from the existence of a hybrid tax system, inter alia, in the context of the Fifth Interim Report of the Katz Commission and consequent legislative developments. with a view to recommending. where appropriate, tax reform. Methodology iDd AQProach A review of relevant authority,liter@ture, principles and legislation. Conclusion To draw conclusions and recommendations regarding the merits of adopting a hybrid system in South Africa and, where appropriate, recommend legislative reforms particularly with regard to business income. / Mercantile Law / LL.M. (Mercantile Law)

In support of a short dissertation entitled - "A critical review of the source and residence principles of taxation of income : A place for both principles in the South African tax system?" Qbjeetives To review and critically examine the application of the source and reside.nce principles regarding the taxption of income in South Africa, and to reveal the extent of the existence and application of a hybrid tax system in respect of the source and residence principles. To examine the legal principles and policy considerations arising from the existence of a hybrid tax system, inter alia, in the context of the Fifth Interim Report of the Katz Commission and consequent legislative developments. with a view to recommending. where appropriate, tax reform. Methodology iDd AQProach A review of relevant authority,liter@ture, principles and legislation. Conclusion To draw conclusions and recommendations regarding the merits of adopting a hybrid system in South Africa and, where appropriate, recommend legislative reforms particularly with regard to business income. / Mercantile Law / LL.M. (Mercantile Law)