This dissertation discovers an important development in the life reinsurance market and investigates two problems behind the rapid growth of shadow insurance -- the motivation of shadow insurance activities and the underlying risks. The first part investigates why U.S. life insurance groups use shadow insurance, i.e., reinsure their risks using affiliated, unauthorized, and unrated off-balance-sheet entities rather than traditional reinsurers, and how such activities are allocated to individual group members. We find that regulatory arbitrage through shadow insurance activities is motivated by a large deviation from an insurance group's optimal capital structure and is primarily exercised by larger groups with relatively lower capital adequacy. Rather than smoothing capitalization across firms using affiliated reinsurers' capacity, insurance groups allocate the amount of shadow insurance to only a few highly leveraged, less capitalized, and larger life insurers within the group. The se / Business Administration/Risk Management and Insurance

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第24468号 / 理博第4967号 / 新制||理||1709(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)准教授 Huffman Michael Alan, 教授 古市 剛史, 教授 今井 啓雄 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

O campus da Universidade de São Paulo em Ribeirão Preto consiste em uma área de 450 ha, caracterizada por um mosaico de remanescentes de mata e construções, sendo uma das maiores áreas verdes do município. Para suplementar a população de bugios-pretos (Alouatta caraya) existente no campus, este estudo realizou a soltura de um casal cativo. O grupo residente, composto por quatro bugios, foi rastreado seis dias por mês num período de seis meses para verificação da área de vida com finalidade de definir uma área para a soltura do casal. Um macho adulto e uma fêmea subadulta foram unidos em cativeiro no Parque Municipal Morro de São Bento. A formação do casal foi realizada em três fases (familiarização, junção e pós-junção) com gradativo aumento de aproximação. O padrão de atividades foi registrado pelo método de varredura a cada 5 minutos por 2 horas durante 10 dias (para cada fase). Os valores obtidos ficaram próximos ao relatado para o gênero, com aumento do comportamento social no decorrer das fases: 4,4 16 e 35,2% (p<0,001). O casal foi transferido para um cativeiro na área de soltura, onde permaneceu por 44 dias. Neste período foi realizada a avaliação pré-soltura e a reeducação alimentar. Na avaliação pré-soltura foi verificado que a mudança de área não afetou significativamente o comportamento social do casal, cujo valor obtido foi de 29% (p=0,083 em comparação com o valor obtido na última fase da formação do casal). Na reeducação alimentar, gradativamente a dieta inicial de 2000 g de frutas por dia, teve 1200 g substituídas por folhas de cinco espécies vegetais. A soltura do casal foi realizada no dia 10 de novembro de 2009. O casal foi acompanhado das 6 às 18 h, quatro dias por mês num período de um ano novembro/09 à outubro/10, com exceção de janeiro/10 com total de 528 h de observação. O padrão de atividades foi registrado pelo método de varredura a cada 20 minutos. Durante o ano, o casal dedicou 61,7% do tempo para descanso, 5,9% para locomoção não-direcional, 6,1% para locomoção direcional, 10,9% para alimentação e 15,4% para comportamento social. A locomoção direcional, comportamento que melhor expressa a exploração da área, teve os registros de cada mês comparados com sua média anual (18,6). Os meses dezembro, fevereiro e março apresentaram registros acima da média, sendo o mês de dezembro significativamente maior (p<0,001). Os meses maio, junho, julho, agosto, setembro e outubro, apresentaram registros menores, sendo o mês de julho significativamente menor (p=0,032). A alimentação foi registrada pelo método 1-0 a cada 5 minutos. Durante o ano, o casal utilizou 146 indivíduos (árvores e lianas) de 38 espécies pertencentes a 18 famílias. As seis espécies mais consumidas correspondem a 61,3% do total de registros: Maclura tinctoria (14,8%), Leucaena leucocephala (13,3%), Ficus insipida (11,8%), Handroanthus impetiginosus (7,6%), Poincianella pluviosa (7%) e Terminalia catappa (6,8%). O total de espécies consumidas em cada mês foi comparado com a média anual de 9,8. Os meses de dezembro, fevereiro, março, abril e maio apresentaram mais espécies consumidas que a média. Os meses junho, julho, agosto, setembro e outubro apresentaram menos espécies que a média, sendo o mês de julho significativamente menor (p=0,033). A área de vida foi registrada pelo método de varredura a cada 1 hora. Durante o ano, o casal utilizou 50 quadrantes de 50 x 50 m (0,25 ha), totalizando uma área de 12,5 ha. O total de quadrantes utilizados por mês foi comparado com a média anual de 9. Os meses de dezembro, fevereiro e março apresentaram maior quantidade de quadrantes utilizados que a média, sendo os meses de dezembro e março significativamente maiores (p=0,039 e p=0,025). Os meses junho, julho, agosto, setembro e outubro apresentaram menor quantidade de quadrantes utilizados que a média. Foram encontradas duas áreas centrais (utilização > 10%), ambas correspondem à localização dos recursos alimentares mais utilizados e bambuzais altos e densos utilizados como árvores-dormitório. Com esses resultados, foi possível verificar que o casal explorou a área desconhecida até o 5° - 6° mês de soltura. A partir daí, espécies vegetais e quadrantes foram selecionados, evidenciando que o casal se organizou para atingir o equilíbrio das suas necessidades energéticas. Portanto, podemos concluir que já no primeiro ano o casal de bugios se adaptou ao campus, pois garantiu sua sobrevivência. Com um ano e meio de soltura ocorreu o nascimento do primeiro filhote, acrescentado que, além da sobrevivência o casal também garantiu sua reprodução. / The University of São Paulo campus in Ribeirão Preto is an area of 450 hectares, characterized by a mosaic of forest remnants and buildings, one of the largest green areas of the city. For this study a captive couple of black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) was released to supplement the existing campus population. In order to define an area for the release of the couple the resident group, composed of four monkeys, was tracked six days per month for a period of six months to determine their home range adult male and a sub-adult female were united in captivity in the Municipal Park Morro de Sao Bento. The couple formation was accomplished in three phases (familiarization, junction and post-junction) with gradual proximity increase. The activity pattern was recorded using the scanning method, every 5 minutes for 2 hours for 10 days (for each phase). Recorded values were close to those reported for the genus, with increased social behavior during the phases: from 4.4 to 16 and 35.2% (p<0.001). The couple was moved to a cage at the release site, where they stayed for 44 days. During this time the pre-release assessment and rehabilitation diet were implemented. During the pre-release it was verified that the change of area did not significantly affect the social behavior of the couple, whose value was 29% (p = 0.083 compared with the value obtained in the last phase of formation the couple). In the rehabilitation diet, of the initial 2000 g of fruit per day, 1200 g were gradually replaced by leaves of five plant species. The couple was release on November 10, 2009. The couple was followed from 6 am to 18 pm, four days per month for a period of one year - November/09 to October/10, except January/10 - a total of 528 observation hours. The activity pattern was recorded by the scanning method every 20 minutes. During the year they spent 61.7% of the time at rest, 5.9% non-directional movement, 6.1%directional movement, 10.9% feeding and 15.4% in social behavior. The directional movement, behavior that best expresses the exploration of the area, monthly records were compared to the annual average (18.6). December, February and March had above-average results with the month of December significantly higher (p<0.001). May, June, July, August, September and October, showed lower results, with the month of July being significantly lower (p=0.032). The feeding was recorded by the method 1-0 every 5 minutes. During the year the couple used 146 individuals (trees and vines) of 38 species belonging to 18 families. The six most consumed species account for 61.3% of total records: Maclura tinctoria (14.8%), Leucaena leucocephala (13.3%), Ficus insipida (11.8%), Handroanthus impetiginosus (7.6%) Poincianella rainfall (7%) and Terminalia catappa (6.8%). The total number of species consumed in each month was compared with the annual average of 9.8. More species than average were consumed during the months of December, February, March, April and May. Fewer species than the average were consumed during the months of June, July, August, September and October, July was significantly lower (p=0.033). The home range was recorded by the scanning method every 1 hour. During the year the couple used 50 quadrants of 50 x 50 m (0.25 ha), totaling an area of 12.5 hectares. The total number of quadrants used per month was compared with the annual average of 9. The months of December, February and March had a higher number of quadrants that the medium used, with December and March significantly higher (p=0.039 and p=0.025). June, July, August, September and October had fewer quadrants used than average. We found two core areas (use > 10%), both correspond to the most used food resources locations and dense tall bamboo ares used as dormitory trees. The results showed that the couple had explored the new area by the 5th - 6th month of release. Thereafter, plant species and quadrants were selected, showing that the couple had organized itself to balance its Therefore, we conclude that in the first year the couple adapted to the campus, ensuring its survival. After a year and a half of release the birth of first infant occurred. Thus, beyond survival, the couple also assured its reproduction.

This thesis considers the prevalence and spatial distribution of Salmonella serovars amongst wild endemic lizards on offshore islands around the coast of New Zealand. The mean test prevalence of faecal excretion of Salmonella was 4.7%. Skinks (Scincidae) were more likely (8.5%) to be carriers of Salmonella than geckos (1.6%). Each island was host to between one and three Salmonella serovars that were not found on any other islands in this study. Two exceptions were Salmonella Bousso and Salmonella Mana which were found on two islands within the same geographical area. Based on the findings of this study, different islands are likely to be hosts to different Salmonella serovars which could have implications for future translocations of native lizards. I also assessed the prevalence and spatial distribution of faecal excretion of Salmonella, Aeromonas and Hafnia alvei within Mana Island. The prevalence of Salmonella on Mana Island was estimated at 5.8%. Salmonella was found predominantly in skinks (10.0%) and less often in geckos (4.1%). H. alvei was found at a prevalence of 1.9%. No Aeromonas species were cultured from any of the cloacal swabs, suggesting that the 95% confidence interval for the true prevalence is 0-3%. Each site sampled in this study was host to one or more unique serovar of Salmonella not found at any of the other sites. The results of this study indicate that Salmonella serovars may become established within populations of lizards and is not spread between them. This may be due to a lack of dispersal of lizards between sites, raising important considerations for the translocation of native lizards. I investigated the prevalence of faecal excretion of Salmonella, H. alvei and Aeromonas by New Zealand native lizards from two captive populations. The mean prevalence of faecal excretion of Salmonella in the captive lizards sampled was 11.5%. There was a higher prevalence of Salmonella within captive population A (22.0%) than in population B (3.6%). No Aeromonas was cultured from any of the lizards. H. alvei was found at a prevalence of 5.2%. The prevalence of Salmonella and H. alvei was significantly higher in captive lizards than in wild populations. Captive lizards may, therefore, not be appropriate founders for new populations of wild lizards. Finally I assessed the different efficiencies of two media and two temperatures in isolating six Salmonella serovars from a reptilian source. All serovars grew equally well at 37°C and 27°C. For most serovars XLD agar was the more successful media than MacConkey agar but the success of different culture media depended on the serovar being cultured. Because lizards are frequently host to a wide range of Salmonella serovars, screening samples using multiple microbiological methods is likely to give the best chance of isolating all Salmonella serovars present.

The continued existence of New Zealand’s critically endangered and endemic black stilt or kakï (Himantopus novaezelandiae) relies on an intensive captive management programme. While this is successful at rearing large numbers of birds for release to the wild, poor survivability of these birds is limiting significant increases in the wild population. Predation and starvation are suspected to be the most common causes of death in released birds, but underlying contributing factors to these mortalities have not been fully evaluated. This research investigates the possible contribution of gastrointestinal (GI) helminth burdens and suboptimal digestive organ development to the high mortality rates of released kakï. Emphasis is placed on evaluating the methods used to assess the importance of these factors and to make informed recommendations for future management. The efficacy of the anthelmintic regime used for kakï was assessed by dosing half of the 80 captive birds with praziquantel (PZQ) prior to release in 2007. Faecal samples were collected before and after anthelmintic treatment, and before and after release to the wild. Post mortem worm counts were conducted on 11 birds that died following release and historical worm count records dating back to 1997 were accessed. The main findings were: PZQ had high efficacy against trematodes; treatment did not prevent re-infection; birds were exposed to helminths at release site; and there was no advantage of treatment for survival. Overall, the results suggest that anthelmintic treatment is an unnecessary cost. Consequently, recommendations were made to cease anthelmintic treatment or reduce its intensity, continue health screening, and incorporate annual efficacy testing to monitor the emergence of anthelmintic resistance. The reliability of faecal screening for GI helminths was evaluated. Faecal egg counts (FECs) were found to be poor indicators of worm burden. The two modified sedimentation methods used to detect trematodes provided relatively low egg recovery rates. Trematode egg shedding varied between days but not by hour of the day or temperature. The collection and analysis of pooled faecal samples proved to be more cost and time-effective than samples from individual birds and the larger masses collected resulted in greater sensitivity. In conclusion, faecal analysis of pooled samples is a useful qualitative indicator of helminth presence or absence but is quantitatively unreliable. In order to assess the importance of digestive organ development to captive-reared and released kak?, the digestive organs of healthy and emaciated captive, released and wild Himantopus sp. were compared. Captive and released kak? had generally smaller digestive organs than wild birds, released birds did not increase digestive organ size to match the high fibre wild diet, and emaciated birds did not have atrophied organs. However, the greatest mortality rates occur soon after release, while the birds were still being supplementary fed. These results suggest that reduced digestive efficiency is probably not contributing significantly to mortality rates and the direct impacts of the translocation are probably greater risk factors. The continued provision of supplementary food to released birds and an increased focus on habitat enhancement and predator control at release sites were recommended. The reliability of comparing fresh and formalin fixed Himantopus sp. gut specimens was evaluated. Significant differences in fresh and formalin fixed organ dry masses and variation in preserved organ lengths indicate that this variation should be considered in future studies. In conclusion, current management practices appear to be successful in ensuring that GI helminths and reduced digestive efficiency do not significantly lower the survivorship of captive-reared and released kakï. There is a need for further research into developing a more direct physiological assessment of the impacts of GI helminths and gut morphology as well as considering the role that starvation may have on poor survivability.

The continued existence of New Zealand’s critically endangered and endemic black stilt or kakï (Himantopus novaezelandiae) relies on an intensive captive management programme. While this is successful at rearing large numbers of birds for release to the wild, poor survivability of these birds is limiting significant increases in the wild population. Predation and starvation are suspected to be the most common causes of death in released birds, but underlying contributing factors to these mortalities have not been fully evaluated. This research investigates the possible contribution of gastrointestinal (GI) helminth burdens and suboptimal digestive organ development to the high mortality rates of released kakï. Emphasis is placed on evaluating the methods used to assess the importance of these factors and to make informed recommendations for future management. The efficacy of the anthelmintic regime used for kakï was assessed by dosing half of the 80 captive birds with praziquantel (PZQ) prior to release in 2007. Faecal samples were collected before and after anthelmintic treatment, and before and after release to the wild. Post mortem worm counts were conducted on 11 birds that died following release and historical worm count records dating back to 1997 were accessed. The main findings were: PZQ had high efficacy against trematodes; treatment did not prevent re-infection; birds were exposed to helminths at release site; and there was no advantage of treatment for survival. Overall, the results suggest that anthelmintic treatment is an unnecessary cost. Consequently, recommendations were made to cease anthelmintic treatment or reduce its intensity, continue health screening, and incorporate annual efficacy testing to monitor the emergence of anthelmintic resistance. The reliability of faecal screening for GI helminths was evaluated. Faecal egg counts (FECs) were found to be poor indicators of worm burden. The two modified sedimentation methods used to detect trematodes provided relatively low egg recovery rates. Trematode egg shedding varied between days but not by hour of the day or temperature. The collection and analysis of pooled faecal samples proved to be more cost and time-effective than samples from individual birds and the larger masses collected resulted in greater sensitivity. In conclusion, faecal analysis of pooled samples is a useful qualitative indicator of helminth presence or absence but is quantitatively unreliable. In order to assess the importance of digestive organ development to captive-reared and released kak?, the digestive organs of healthy and emaciated captive, released and wild Himantopus sp. were compared. Captive and released kak? had generally smaller digestive organs than wild birds, released birds did not increase digestive organ size to match the high fibre wild diet, and emaciated birds did not have atrophied organs. However, the greatest mortality rates occur soon after release, while the birds were still being supplementary fed. These results suggest that reduced digestive efficiency is probably not contributing significantly to mortality rates and the direct impacts of the translocation are probably greater risk factors. The continued provision of supplementary food to released birds and an increased focus on habitat enhancement and predator control at release sites were recommended. The reliability of comparing fresh and formalin fixed Himantopus sp. gut specimens was evaluated. Significant differences in fresh and formalin fixed organ dry masses and variation in preserved organ lengths indicate that this variation should be considered in future studies. In conclusion, current management practices appear to be successful in ensuring that GI helminths and reduced digestive efficiency do not significantly lower the survivorship of captive-reared and released kakï. There is a need for further research into developing a more direct physiological assessment of the impacts of GI helminths and gut morphology as well as considering the role that starvation may have on poor survivability.

Throughout history species has gone extinct due to anthropogenic activities. During the last century efforts have been done to reintroduce species back into the wild. Zoos that originally were created as amusement parks for people have today a new purpose; to keep and breed species in captivity for later reintroductions in the wild. However a relaxed environment such as a zoo leads to a general fitness decline of up to 40% per generation in captivity. The probability of a successful reintroduction of a species that has been bred in a zoo will be lower the longer time it has been kept in captivity. The reintroduction of a captive bred species can also cause secondary extinctions and other negative effects on the food-web. Both changes in the community caused by the loss of a species and changes in the species itself caused by captivity can be expected to affect the outcome of a reintroduction attempt. Using a modeling approach I here investigate how the reintroduction of a captive bred species (at three different trophic levels; basal, intermediate and top predator species) affects a food-web and what risks there are in reintroducing it. A Lokta-Volterra model with type II functional response is used. I investigate three scenarios: the reintroduction of a species with 0% change in its attributes, 40% change in its attributes and 75% change in its attributes. It was found that the most important factor for reintroduction success when reintroducing a species is whether it is a producer species (basal species) or a consumer species (intermediate and top predator species). The producer species were most sensitive to the changes in their attributes, whilst consumer species were more sensitive to change in the food-web (Euclidian distance). The producer species were found to cause most secondary extinctions in all scenarios, hence indicating that it is a bottom-up controlled food-web. The present study suggests that the success of a reintroduction attempt is affected both by the degree of changes in the food web caused by the initial loss of the species and the degree of change in the species itself caused by captivity.

The blue crane (Grus paradisea) is endemic to southern Africa and has the smallest geographical range of the 15 crane species occurring world-wide. Although this species is still found throughout most of its historic range, it has experienced a significant and rapid decline in numbers over the last 20 years. One factor causing this decline is the illegal removal of chicks from the wild. Permits are required to keep, trade in and breed cranes in captivity. However, birds must be captive bred in order to obtain a permit. Therefore, chicks taken illegally from the wild are fraudulently incorporated into an existing captive population under the pretence that they offspring of a legal captive pair. This study describes the development of a set of microsatellite markers to assist the identification of illegal trade in the blue crane. These markers can ultimately be used to verify the relationship between the offspring and its claimed parents by performing parentage analyses. Forty microsatellite loci were obtained from genomic libraries previously developed in two other crane species and tested for cross-species utility in the blue crane. In addition, 42 loci were developed for this study from a blue crane species-specific genomic microsatellite library, of which 19 were tested for polymorphism in this species. The microsatellite markers characterised here were also tested for their utility in two other crane species: wattled crane (G. carunculatus) and grey-crowned crane (Balearica regulorum). One locus, Gamu007, was found to be sex-linked and therefore excluded from the set of markers. A total of 28 polymorphic loci were tested for the suitability in parentage analysis in the blue crane. Of these, a set of 16 loci were determined to be as suitable for this purpose. These loci were shown to be inherited in a Mendelian fashion in a single blue crane family. In addition, statistical analysis of the loci were identified as exhibiting linkage equilibrium, this was supported by their distant association on a predicted Grus microsatellite map based on the chicken genome. The selected loci were also identified as having a low frequency of null alleles as well as a total first and second parent exclusion power of 0.9999 and 1.0000, respectively. These loci provide a valuable tool for parentage testing in blue crane, and may also be valuable in population genetic studies to assist conservation strategies. In addition, this set may be used to assist legal cases involving the illegal trade in blue cranes upon completion of additional microsatellite marker validation procedures. Twenty-seven loci were polymorphic in the wattled and grey-crowned crane. These could provide a valuable source of micro satellite loci in these species, and could potentially eliminate the need for the development of a species-specific microsatellite library. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

The attitudes of employees are key for ensuring the productivity and sustainability of an organisation. The present research aimed to explore obstacles and facilitators of positive team functioning in an offshore environment. Preliminary identification of obstacles and challenges to effective teamwork was achieved through an interview with two senior Human Resource managers at a large international bank, the primary location of which is in Australia. From this information, a survey was developed and distributed to members of an offshore Human Resource (HR) service centre consisting of 100 staff members, responsible for HR operations and described as an ‘extension’ or ‘captive’ team. An interview with management revealed that the effectiveness and sustainability of the current offshore team were of particular interest. Consideration of these issues and research into the effectiveness of virtual and captive teams led to a focus on organisational identity, work engagement, climate, trust, recognition from management, technology support, reliability of technology and goal clarity. Goal clarity and technology support were significant predictors of work engagement; low integration, goal clarity, technology support, reliability of technology and recognition from management were significant predictors of organisational identity. Thus, in an offshore environment, clear goals and the ability to complete those goals through use of efficient technologies are vital. This should impact the type of training given to offshore team members as well as the amount of technology support that is available to them.

The continued existence of New Zealand’s critically endangered and endemic black stilt or kakï (Himantopus novaezelandiae) relies on an intensive captive management programme. While this is successful at rearing large numbers of birds for release to the wild, poor survivability of these birds is limiting significant increases in the wild population. Predation and starvation are suspected to be the most common causes of death in released birds, but underlying contributing factors to these mortalities have not been fully evaluated. This research investigates the possible contribution of gastrointestinal (GI) helminth burdens and suboptimal digestive organ development to the high mortality rates of released kakï. Emphasis is placed on evaluating the methods used to assess the importance of these factors and to make informed recommendations for future management. The efficacy of the anthelmintic regime used for kakï was assessed by dosing half of the 80 captive birds with praziquantel (PZQ) prior to release in 2007. Faecal samples were collected before and after anthelmintic treatment, and before and after release to the wild. Post mortem worm counts were conducted on 11 birds that died following release and historical worm count records dating back to 1997 were accessed. The main findings were: PZQ had high efficacy against trematodes; treatment did not prevent re-infection; birds were exposed to helminths at release site; and there was no advantage of treatment for survival. Overall, the results suggest that anthelmintic treatment is an unnecessary cost. Consequently, recommendations were made to cease anthelmintic treatment or reduce its intensity, continue health screening, and incorporate annual efficacy testing to monitor the emergence of anthelmintic resistance. The reliability of faecal screening for GI helminths was evaluated. Faecal egg counts (FECs) were found to be poor indicators of worm burden. The two modified sedimentation methods used to detect trematodes provided relatively low egg recovery rates. Trematode egg shedding varied between days but not by hour of the day or temperature. The collection and analysis of pooled faecal samples proved to be more cost and time-effective than samples from individual birds and the larger masses collected resulted in greater sensitivity. In conclusion, faecal analysis of pooled samples is a useful qualitative indicator of helminth presence or absence but is quantitatively unreliable. In order to assess the importance of digestive organ development to captive-reared and released kak?, the digestive organs of healthy and emaciated captive, released and wild Himantopus sp. were compared. Captive and released kak? had generally smaller digestive organs than wild birds, released birds did not increase digestive organ size to match the high fibre wild diet, and emaciated birds did not have atrophied organs. However, the greatest mortality rates occur soon after release, while the birds were still being supplementary fed. These results suggest that reduced digestive efficiency is probably not contributing significantly to mortality rates and the direct impacts of the translocation are probably greater risk factors. The continued provision of supplementary food to released birds and an increased focus on habitat enhancement and predator control at release sites were recommended. The reliability of comparing fresh and formalin fixed Himantopus sp. gut specimens was evaluated. Significant differences in fresh and formalin fixed organ dry masses and variation in preserved organ lengths indicate that this variation should be considered in future studies. In conclusion, current management practices appear to be successful in ensuring that GI helminths and reduced digestive efficiency do not significantly lower the survivorship of captive-reared and released kakï. There is a need for further research into developing a more direct physiological assessment of the impacts of GI helminths and gut morphology as well as considering the role that starvation may have on poor survivability.