Superkondensatorer är energilagringsenheter som har uppmärksammats mer under det senaste decenniet. Några av de fördelar som dessa enheter har varit är lagring av hög effekttäthet, förlängda livscykler och snabba laddnings- och urladdningstider. Dock är superkondensatorer fortfarande begränsade i energitäthet i jämförelse med batterier. För att få högre effekt och energitäthet är en asymmetrisk hybrid superkondensator ett bra alternativ. Denna enhet består av en kolbaserad elektrod för icke-faradaiska reaktioner och en kolelektrod kombinerad med metalloxider för redoxreaktioner. Materialvalet spelar en avgörande roll för förmågan en hybrid asymmetrisk superkondensator ska ha. I denna studie undersöks fyra olika kommersiella kol. Den specifika ytan, porstorlekarna och morfologin jämförs. Dessutom syntetiseras metalloxidernanopartiklar MnO2 och kristallstrukturen undersöks. Därtill beläggs MnO2-partiklarna på de fyra kolen och tillväxten av dessa undersöks. Slutligen analyseras interaktionen mellan jonvätskan 1-butyl-3-metylimidazoliumtetrafluorborat (BMIM[BF4]) som en elektrolyt och de olika kolen. / Supercapacitors are energy storage devices that have drawn attention for the past decade. Some of the advantages of these devices are higher power density storage, extended life cycles, and fast charge and discharge times. However, supercapacitors are still limited in energy density compared to batteries. To obtain higher power and energy densities, a hybrid asymmetric supercapacitor is a good alternative. This device consists of one carbon-based electrode for non-faradaic reactions, and one carbon electrode combined with metal oxides for redox reactions. The material choice is important for the capability of a hybrid asymmetric supercapacitor. In this study, four different commercial carbons are investigated. The specific surface area, pore sizes, and morphology are compared. In addition, metal oxide nanoparticles MnO2 are synthesised, and crystal structure is investigated. Furthermore, the MnO2 particles are deposited on the four carbons and the growth of those is studied. Finally, the interaction between ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (BMIM[BF4]) as an electrolyte and the different carbons is studied.

Submitted by Angela Maria de Oliveira (amolivei@uepg.br) on 2017-10-19T17:51:28Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Andressa Schebeliski.pdf: 2757161 bytes, checksum: 6245735bd7e8fc12f408a8368a4b7f69 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-10-19T17:51:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Andressa Schebeliski.pdf: 2757161 bytes, checksum: 6245735bd7e8fc12f408a8368a4b7f69 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-16 / Neste trabalho, eletrodos de carbono cerâmico (ECC) foram confeccionados a partir da utilização de nanotubos de carbono de paredes múltiplas (MWCNT), a fim de se aprimorar as características do ECC. Para a confecção dos ECC à base de MWCNT (ECC/MWCNT), inicialmente foi realizada a funcionalização dos MWCNT, os quais foram submetidos ao refluxo, na presença de ácido nítrico e ácido perclórico. A caracterização espectroscópica dos MWCNT foi realizada por difratometria de raios X (DRX), espectroscopia RAMAN e espectroscopia FTIR. A eficácia da funcionalização dos MWCNT foi confirmada por DRX pela presença do pico em 2θ = 26,02°, referente à reflexão (002). O espectro Raman mostrou as bandas D, G e G‘ característicos dos materiais de carbono, o que também pode confirmado nos espectros de FTIR pela presença de grupos funcionais carboxílicos e hidroxílicos característicos. A caracterização morfológica por MEV-FEG demonstrou que o tratamento oxidativo não danificou a estrutura dos tubos. Os ECC confeccionados, tanto com MWCNT quanto grafite, foram caracterizados por MEV-FEG, a qual demonstrou a incorporação dos nanotubos à rede de sílica e a presença de grafite na forma de lamelas. A espectroscopia Raman apresentou as bandas D, G e G' e as bandas na região entre 400 e 1200 cm-1 referentes à ligação Si-O, enquanto que no espectro FTIR, foram observados os estiramentos/deformações relacionados aos modos vibracionais dos grupos SiO2 e Si-CH3.A caracterização eletroquímica do ECC/MWCNT, realizada por voltametria cíclica (VC) e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE), na presença de K4Fe(CN)6/ K3Fe(CN)6, demonstrou que a incorporação de MWCNT ao ECC aprimora as características eletroquímicas do eletrodo. Um aumento na resposta de corrente de pico (cerca de 50% de incremento) e um menor valor de ΔEp foram obtidos com o ECC/MWCNT em comparação com ECC/grafite. Esse comportamento está de acordo com os resultados do EIE, nos quais o ECC/MWCNT apresentou menor resistência à transferência de carga (Rct) em relação ao grafite (ECC/MWCNT = 27,37Ω, ECC /grafite = 33,39Ω). Para verificar a potencialidade do ECC/MWCNT como sensor eletroquímico, foram determinados os fármacos sulfacetamida sódica (SFC) e sulfadiazina (SFD). Ambos apresentaram um processo de oxidação irreversível em torno de +1,0 V em meio a tampão fosfato (pH 7,0). Verificou-se que o pH do eletrólito de suporte teve influência direta no potencial de pico anódico dos analitos, o que pode ser atribuído ao envolvimento de prótons no processo de oxidação. O valor de pH ótimo foi de 6,0 para ambos os fármacos, sendo este utilizado para todas as análises. O ECC/MWCNT exibiu uma relação linear entre a corrente de pico e a concentração das sulfonamidas na faixa de 9,9 a 177,0 μmol L-1, com limite de detecção (LD) e limite de quantificação (LQ) de 1,06 e 3,54 μmol L-1 para SFC e 4,75 e 15,83 μmol L-1 para SFD, respectivamente. Além da boa sensibilidade para a detecção dos antibióticos, o eletrodo desenvolvido mostrou boa repetibilidade e níveis de reprodutibilidade (DPRrepet = 0,99% e DPRreprod = 0,95% para SFC, DPRrepe=2,47% e DPRreprod = 0,07% para SFD), confirmando o promissor desempenho analítico do ECC/MWCNT para a eletroanálise de SFC e SFD em amostras reais. / In this work, ceramic carbon electrodes (CCE) were synthetized using multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) to improve the electrochemical properties of this electrode material. For the construction of MWCNT-based CCE (CCE/MWCNT), the MWCNT functionalization was initially performed, which were refluxed in presence of nitric acid and perchloric acid. The spectroscopic characterization of MWCNT was performed by X-ray diffractometry (XRD), RAMAN spectroscopy and FTIR spectroscopy. The effectiveness of the MWCNT functionalization was confirmed with XRD pattern by the presence of the peak at 2θ = 26.02°, which corresponds to the (002) reflection. Raman spectrum showed the D, G and G‘ bands, characteristic of carbon materials, which can also be confirmed in the FTIR spectra by the presence of characteristic carboxylic and hydroxyl functional groups. The morphological characterization by FESEM demonstrated that the oxidative treatment did not affect the tubular structure of the samples. The CCE made, both with MWCNT and graphite, were characterized by FESEM, which demonstrated the uniform incorporation of the nanotubes and graphite flakes into the silica matrix. The Raman spectroscopy presented the D, G and G‘ bands and the bands between 400 and 1200 cm-1 attributed to the Si-O bond, while the FTIR spectrum showed stretching/ deformations related to the vibrational modes of SiO2 and Si-CH3 groups. The electrochemical characterization of CCE/MWCNT performed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in presence of K4Fe(CN)6/K3Fe(CN)6, demonstrated that the incorporation of MWCNT in the CCE improved the electrochemical properties of the electrode. A higher current response (about 50% of increment) and a lower ΔEp value were achieved with the CCE/MWCNT compared to CCE/graphite. This behavior was in good agreement with the EIS results, in which the CCE/MWCNT showed a lower charge transfer resistance (Rct) in relation to graphite based electrode (CCE/MWCNT = 27.37Ω; CCE/graphite = 33.39Ω). In order to verify the potentiality of the CCE/MWCNT as an electrochemical sensor, the sodium sulfacetamide (SFC) and sulfadiazine (SFD) pharmaceuticals were determined. Both analytes showed an irreversible oxidation wave at +1.0 V in phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). It was verified that the pH of the support electrolyte had a direct influence in the anodic peak potential of the analytes, which can be attributed to the involvement of protons in the oxidation process. The optimum pH value was 6.0 for both pharmaceuticals, so it was employed for further analysis. The CCE/MWCNT exhibited a linear relationship between the peak current and sulfonamide concentration in the range of 9.9 to 177.0 μmol L-1, with detection (LOD) and quantification limit (LOQ) of 1.06 and 3.54 μmol L-1 for SFC and 4.75 and 15.83 μmol L-1 for SFD, respectively. Besides the good sensitivity for detecting the antibiotics, the developed electrode showed good repeatability and reproducibility levels (RSDrepeat= 0.99% and RSDreprod= 0.95% for SFC; RSDrepeat = 2.47% and RSDreprod = 0.07% for SFD), which confirmed the promising analytical performance of CCE/MWCNT for the electroanalysis of SFC and SFD in real samples.

Le but de cette thèse a été le développement de capteurs électrochimiques en flux, basés sur l'utilisation du feutre de graphite comme électrode de travail pour l'analyse pharmaceutique et environnementale du cuivre (II) et du zinc (II), deux métaux lourds essentiels pour l'homéostasie de l'organisme humain, mais toxiques en excès. Pour la détection des ions zinciques (II), une cellule d'analyse en flux, bien adaptée pour l'utilisation du feutre de graphite utilisé comme électrode de travail a été élaborée. Les conditions analytiques ont été optimisées et ont conduit à la détection du zinc (II) avec de bonnes sensibilités. Ces résultats montrent l'intérêt de réaliser en flux l'étape de pré-concentration pour augmenter la cinétique d'électrodéposition. Nous avons réalisé une étude complète sur une électrode en feutre de graphite modifiée par réduction d'un sel de diazonium, conduisant à la formation d'un film organique ayant une forte affinité pour les ions cuivriques. L'électrode modifiée combinée avec une étape de pré-concentration en flux permet la réalisation d'un capteur d'ions Cu2+ avec une grande sensibilité et une bonne sélectivité. Nous avons développé, aussi, un capteur électrochimique en flux pour l'analyse des traces d'ions cuivriques à l'aide d'une électrode en feutre de graphite modifiée avec un récepteur capable de complexer de façon sélective les ions de cuivre (II) dans des solutions aqueuses. Enfin, nous avons testé la détection électrochimique du cuivre (II) à l'aide d'électrodes modifiées bidimensionnelles, CPE et SPE. Les résultats préliminaires montrent une bonne capacité de ces électrodes pour la complexation et la détection des ions cuivriques (II). / The scope of this thesis was the development of flow electrochemical sensors, based on the use of graphite felt as a working electrode for the pharmaceutical and environmental analysis of zinc (II) and copper (II) ions, two heavy metals essential for the homeostasis of the human organism, but toxic if found in excess. For the detection of zinc (II) ions, a custom made flow cell was developed, well suited for the use of a graphite felt as working electrode in anodic stripping voltammetry analyses. The analytical conditions were optimized, leading to the detection of zinc with good sensitivities. These results prove the capacity of the preconcentration in flow to increase the kinetics of electrodeposition. A complet study on a graphite felt electrode modified by reduction of a diazonium salt, resulting in the formation of an organic film with high affinity for copper (II) ions was performed. The modified electrode combined with a flow preconcentration step allowed the achievement of a Cu2+ sensor with high sensitivity and good selectivity. We developed, also, a flow electrochemical sensor, allowing the analysis of traces of copper (II) ions, using a graphite felt electrode modified with a ligand proved to be able to selectively complex the copper (II) in aqueous solutions. Finally, we tested the electrochemical detection of zinc (II) and copper (II) ions by using modified bi-dimensional electrodes, CPE and SPE. Preliminary results show a good capacity of these modified electrodes for the complexation and detection of the copper (II) ions.

Dans cette thèse, nous présentons la détection électrochimique des herbicides, c'est-à-dire le paraquat et l'isoproturon dans des échantillons aqueux. Leur utilisation intensive est une source de contamination de l'environnement et leur toxicité constitue une menace pour la santé. La détection électrochimique est une technique prometteuse et avantageuse par rapport aux méthodes de détection conventionnelles en raison de ses propriétés telles que l'analyse rapide, la facilité d'utilisation, la rentabilité et la sensibilité élevée résultant de la modification de l'électrode de travail. Ici, nous avons modifié les électrodes modifiées avec des films minces de silice mésoporeuse pour agir comme capteurs d'herbicide. Ces électrodes ont été modifiées par un processus d'auto-assemblage assisté par électrochimie, un processus bien établi pour la modification des électrodes par notre groupe. Dans la première partie, l'adhérence du film de silice mésoporeux aux électrodes de carbone a été améliorée à l'aide d'une amine primaire qui a agi comme colle moléculaire pour une meilleure fixation de ces films à la surface des électrodes. Dans la partie suivante, ces électrodes modifiées ont été utilisées pour la détection électrochimique des herbicides susmentionnés. Les électrodes modifiées ont montré une sensibilité accrue et une limite de détection basse par rapport aux électrodes non modifiées. L'effet des différents paramètres de la solution ainsi que l'épaisseur du film et la géométrie de l'électrode ont également été étudiés et ont un impact critique sur la sensibilité du système / In this thesis, we present the electrochemical detection of herbicides i.e. paraquat and isoproturon in aqueous samples. These herbicides are used worldwide extensively for weed control in different crops. Their intensive use is a source of environmental contamination and their toxicity is a threat to Human health. Electrochemical sensing is a promising and advantageous technique as compared to conventional detection methods due to its properties such as rapid analysis, ease of operation, cost effectiveness and high sensitivity as a result of working electrode modification. Here, we modified electrodes modified with mesoporous silica thin films to act as herbicide sensors. These electrodes were modified by electrochemically assisted self-assembly process, a well-established process for electrode modification by our group. In the first part adhesion of mesoporous silica film at carbon electrodes was improved with the help of a primary amine which acted as molecular glue for better attachment of these films at electrodes surface. In the next part these modified electrodes were used for electrochemical detection of above stated herbicides. Modified electrodes showed enhanced sensitivity and low limit of detection as compared to unmodified ones. Effect of different solution parameters as well as film thickness and electrode geometry was also studied and found to have critical impact on sensitivity of the system

Ce travail de thèse concerne la préparation et caractérisation des électrodes de carbone vitreuses (GC) modifiées par les films de groupements aryl (substitués) ou par phtalocyanines des métaux (MPc) et l'évaluation de leurs activités catalytiques envers la réduction électrochimique des nitrates dans les milieux aqueux acides. Les techniques adoptées pour la modification de surface du substrat (le GC) consistent à la réduction électrochimique des sels de diazonium ou à l'abrasion physique de la surface contre la poudre des MPc. En faisant intervenir un mécanisme complexe, y compris les phénomènes d'adsorption du réactif et du produit sur la surface, l’électroréduction de sels de diazonium entraîne au greffage des groupements aryls sur la surface. Les analyses voltamétriques détaillées ont rendu possible de conclure, décisivement pour la première fois, que la réduction commence à se faire sur la surface entière et, selon la concentration du diazonium et/ou l'efficacité du greffage, peut continuer à se faire à traverse les ouvertures microscopiques générés parmi les groupements aryl greffés sur la surface durant l'étape précédente de réduction (...) / This thesis work concerns about the preparation, characterization and catalytic activities evaluation of (substituted) aryl and metallophthalocyanines films-modified glassy carbon (GC) electrodes towards nitrate electrochemical reduction in acidic aqueous media. The surface modification techniques adopted consisted of the electroreduction of 4-substituted aryl diazonium salts and the metallophthalocyanine (MPc) powder abrasive adsorption. Through a complex mechanism involving the reactants and products adsorptions on the substrate surface, the electroreduction of aryl diazonium salts leads to the covalent attachment of mono as well as multilayers of aryl groups on the substrate surface. Detailed voltammetric investigations enabled to conclude, decisively for the first time, that the diazonium cation reduction begins to take place on the bulk (whole) surface and, depending upon the concentration and/or the products grafting efficiency, may continue to take place across the microscopic pinholes formed among the aryl groups grafted on the surface during the previous reduction step, thereby explaining the origin of the two reduction peaks in the voltammograms on GC surface. Electrochemical characterization of 4-nitrophenyl(NP)-modified surfaces in various types of aqueous media shed light over a number of mechanistic aspects of the process. Some new electrochemical evidences of the complications of surface coverage determination of redox centers from their electrochemical responses and of the role of aqueous electrolyte species transport on the responses have been presented. Some new phenomena or observations such as identification of the regions of votammograms corresponding to aminophenyl and hydroxyaminophenyl formation of the surface bound NP groups reduction, identification of the method of surface bound NP groups surface coverage estimation from the total width at half wave maximum (or electron transfer coefficient) of the responses, identification of the mechanistic aspects governing the differences of voltammetric behaviors of surface bound NP layers and the solution phase nitrobenzene, electrochemical (and XPS) evidences of the presence of azo type functionalities in the aryl films prepared from aryldiazonium electroreduction were also noticed. Barrier characters of the aryldiazonium electroreduction-derived N,N-dimethylaminophenyl-, nitrophenyl- and aminophenyl-modified surfaces towards ferricyanide, hexaammineruthenium and proton electroreductions in aqueous media indicate to the existence of electrostatic interactions among the surface bound and the solution phase ionic species. However, upon negative potential applications (such as those of water or nitrate reductions) surface attached films are partly or completely lost from the surface, as evidenced by the analytical scale measurements as well as from potentiostatic electrolysis of nitrate reduction in acidic aqueous media. Concerning the MPc-modified GC surfaces, the analytical scale measurements showed that among the phthalocyanines of copper, Iron and Nickel, the one of Cu is an optimizing material for the nitrate electrochemical reduction in, not previously reported, acidic aqueous media. The catalytic activity of MPc powders towards nitrate reduction in these media, which varies in the order CuPc > FePc > NiPc > GC appears to be related to the mental center and not with the phthalocyanine ring

L'objectif de ce travail est de développer et d’étudier une nouvelle classe de fluidesintelligents à base de dispersions colloïdales de carbone, sensibles à un stimulus externe pour desapplications de conversion et stockage d’énergie. Ces stimuli sont de différentes natures : vibrationmécanique, mouvement humain, variation de pression ou écoulement d'un solvant, et peuventaltérer les structures de tels systèmes. Ceci induit une modification de la structure locale desparticules et par conséquent des propriétés diélectriques et électriques. Habituellement, lessuspensions de matériaux carbonés sont étudiées au repos ou séchées. Toutefois, comprendre leurcomportement en flux est essentiel pour de nouvelles applications où ces matériaux sont exploitésdans des conditions dynamiques telle que le stockage d'énergie électrochimique assisté par flux(FAES). Par exemple, les matériaux à base de graphène jouent désormais un rôle important dans lesnouvelles technologies énergétiques. Ils sont utilisés comme additifs conducteurs dans lesassemblages d'électrodes, mais en raison de leur forme anisotrope spécifique, ils permettentégalement d’obtenir des fluides diélectriques sous écoulement.Les cristaux liquides d'oxyde de graphène, en tant que matériau souple électrostrictif, sont étudiéspour la récupération d'énergie mécanique, ainsi que des dispersions de noir de carbone pour lestockage d'énergie.Les propriétés diélectriques et électriques de ces dispersions fluides dans des conditions statiques etdynamiques sont mesurées et analysées. Enfin, l’effet de l’écoulement sur l’orientation et laréorganisation locale des particules et leur comportement diélectrique et électrique sont examinés. / The aim of this work is to develop and study a new class of smart fluids made of colloidalcarbon-based dispersions, which are sensitive to an external stimulus for energy storage orconversion applications. The effect of an external input, such as mechanical vibration, humanmotion, variable pressure, flowing of a solvent, can alter the structures of such systems.Consequently these changes induce modifications of the dielectric and electrical properties. Usually,the suspensions of carbon materials are investigated at rest or dried. However, their flow behavior iscritical when new technologies, which exploit these materials in dynamic conditions such as FAES(Flow-Assisted Electrochemical Energy Storage) are considered. For example, graphene-basedmaterials are now playing a significant role in energy materials. They act as conductive additives inelectrode assemblies, but due to their specific anisotropic shape they also provide a new route toachieve dielectric liquid media.In details, Graphene Oxide liquid crystals as electrostrictive soft material for mechanical energyharvesting and Carbon black dispersions as percolated flowable electrodes for capacitive energystorage are investigated.In particular, the dielectric and electrical properties of these flowable dispersions are studied understatic and dynamic conditions. The effect of the flow-rate on the local orientation and reorganizationof the particles and their related dielectric and electrical behavior are examined.