Today, global warming is commonly known due to the major impact on the earth’s weather conditions. The increase in the average temperature of the lower atmosphere is causing a drastic change in weather conditions. Human intervention is the main cause of global warming and the latter will be limited if greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions are reduced by individuals and companies in all countries around the world. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the biggest contributors of GHGs and, therefore, a number of measures were implemented to reduce CO2 emissions. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was signed by the Annex 1 countries, of which South Africa is not part, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to reduce GHG emissions. It is not only the responsibility of the Annex 1 countries to stabilise global warming, but all countries have to contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions. Enabling countries to meet these reduction targets, they implemented the following measures: carbon tax, Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) and carbon credits. Carbon tax has been implemented in many countries over the last decade with different levels of success. Carbon tax will be implemented in South Africa during 2013/2014. ESCOs have been implemented to assist companies with the implementation of energy saving projects. These projects will assist in reducing carbon emissions and meeting the set targets and it will also assist in reducing the effect of carbon tax. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects are implemented under the UNFCCC for companies that want to register carbon reduction projects. If the projects meet the CDM registration criteria, the project can be registered as a CDM project and it has the ability to earn tradable carbon credits. These credits can be traded on national or international carbon trading markets. This study considered a combination of all the measures a company can implement to improve energy efficiency and thereby reducing GHG emissions. An evaluation of the feasibility of a carbon reduction project, the ‘Vaal River compressed air energy efficiency improvement project’ of AngloGold Ashanti (AGA) was performed to determine whether the project can be registered as a CDM project. It was concluded that AGA will be able to register the project as a CDM project and earn tradable carbon credits. Furthermore, it is recommended that AGA makes use of the option to finance the carbon reducing project by using external funding provided by EDF (the French equivalent of South Africa’s Eskom). / MCom (Management Accountancy)), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Essay I: In January, 2005, the EU launched the first international emissions trading system (EU ETS), aimed at reducing carbon emissions in a cost-effective way by means of a market-based instrument. In this paper, we use the treatment/control, before/after design of the natural experiment approach to investigate the treatment effect of the EU ETS on the profitability of a sample of Swedish energy firms in 2005 and 2006. We also investigate whether under-cap and over-cap firms respond differently to the EU ETS. The estimation results in general suggest no significant impact in 2005 and a negative significant impact in 2006. The sub-sample analysis suggests that profitability of under-cap and over-cap firms were affected differently by the EU ETS in 2005, but not in 2006. Essay II: The paper empirically explores the possible causes behind electricity price jumps in the Nordic electricity market, Nord Pool. A time-series model (a mixed GARCH-EARJI jump model) capturing the common statistical features of electricity prices is used to identify price jumps. By the model, a categorical variable is defined distinguishing no, positive and negative jumps. The causes for the jumps are then explored through the use of ordered probit models in a second stage. The empirical results indicate that the structure of the market plays an important role in whether shocks in the demand and supply for electricity translate into price jumps. Essay III: Scientific evidence indicates that human development faces multiple and interacting regime-switching environmental thresholds such as climate change, ocean acidification and biodiversity loss. And crossing one or more such thresholds would trigger rapid and large changes in our life-support system with widespread consequences. This paper attempts to study the effects of such thresholds on human well-being in a growth theoretical framework. We derive the accounting prices of pollution stocks such as the concentration of greenhouse gases for the risk of triggering catastrophic events, which are needed for conducting a dynamic cost-benefit analysis. We first analyze a simple model with a single threshold and then extend it to a planar system with correlated double thresholds with a joint probability distribution. the results can be applied for analyzing global climate change and ocean acidification risks, which are highlighted in a Nature article by Rockström et al. (2009). Essay IV: Lump-sum transfers as a means of tackling climate change are mainly perceived as a theoretical construct to achieve the first best Pareto optimum. The previous literature on lump-sum transfers normally focuses on the two polar cases: the absence of lump-sum transfers and perfect or unconstrained lump-sum transfers, leaving the middle way aside. In this paper, we attempt to explore the unmarked part by developing a model where transfer costs are explicitly taken into account. We show that whether the Pareto optimum characterized by the equalization of marginal abatement costs is attainable depends on the formation of transfer costs. When the marginal transfer cost is zero, the separability of equity and efficiency under perfect lump-sum transfers is kept. However, when the marginal transfer cost is positive, the optimum with equalization of marginal abatement costs is neither attainable, nor desirable. We also simulate a policy experiment in China to review the optimal abatement and transfer patterns between China's provinces within a framework of imperfect lump-sum transfers. The highlighted welfare gains is supportive of considering lump-sum transfers as a national climate change policy.

The objectives of this study are to determine the non-methane volatile organic carbon emissions from the parts used in the interiors of buses at different temperatures and to analyze the components of these emissions. The total non-methane volatile organic carbon (NMVOC) concentrations in various sections of a bus were measured in order to determine the indoor air pollution in the bus. Different samples of the materials used in the interior parts of the buses were provided by the manufacturing company and they were tested in the METU Air Pollution Laboratory in order to see what hydrocarbon components make up this total NMVOC concentration.The results of experiments showed that the leading constituent emitted from the test pieces was toluene. Benzene concentration was very low. This is very important since benzene is a carcinogen and it has very low indoor concentration limits determined by OSHA and NIOSH. When the concentrations of the total NMVOC emitted from various parts are examined, it was seen that the most of the VOC emissions occur from the floor materials and ventilation channel. After measurements were done in two buses the average indoor total NMVOC concentrations were found as 21.15 &plusmn / 5.8 ppmv (as C3H8) and 46.04 &plusmn / 9.2 ppmv (as C3H8) in the first and second bus, respectively. Suggestions were made to the manufacturing company for some replacement of solvents and adhesives, and measurements were repeated with the newly manufactured parts for the bus. The highest concentrations were observed for toluene in these measurements, too. However, the toluene concentration was at least 40% lower than the initial values. Benzene concentrations were again very low. The average indoor total NMVOC concentrations were found as 10.41 &plusmn / 2 ppmv (as C3H8) in the measurements done in the bus decorated with new materials. This concentration was about 50% and 25% of the values measured in the first and the second bus at the beginning of the study, respectively.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Incêndios florestais emitem gases do efeito estufa que contribuem para o aquecimento global e para as mudanças climáticas. A base dos principais gases que provocam o efeito estufa é o carbono, objeto deste estudo e presente na biomassa florestal. O Brasil possui a maior floresta tropical do mundo, a Amazônia. Contudo, a quantificação das emissões de gases do efeito estufa por incêndios florestais são difíceis de mensurar, havendo poucos estudos para a região. Roraima é um dos estados amazônicos que possui um dos melhores históricos de incêndios florestais, o que possibilita a sua quantificação. O objetivo deste estudo foi o de entender a dinâmica espaço-temporal dos incêndios florestais ocorridos em Roraima no período de 2000-2010. Para tanto, o trabalho verificou (i) a área impactada pelos incêndios neste período; (ii) a relação entre área impactada e os eventos climáticos (El Niño, La Niña e anos normais); (iii) os tipos florestais mais afetadas pelos fogos e (iv) o destino do carbono afetado por incêndios florestais. Foram utilizados mosaicos LANDSAT TM/ETM+ compostos por oito cenas em cada ano amostrado. A data das cenas foi preferencialmente escolhida entre abril e maio, meses que correspondem ao final do período seco em Roraima. Cada mosaico foi interpretado visualmente em uma escala de trabalho de 1:50.000. Foi adotado um protocolo de inspeção ao longo das principais estradas (BR 174, BR 210, BR 401) para verificar os desmatamentos (i) nas áreas de colonização, e (ii) em toda a borda das savanas em contato com a floresta. As áreas incendiadas em um dado ano foram manualmente poligonadas após um sistema de checagem entre os anos anterior e posterior para evitar a construção de polígonos equivocados. Para a verificação dos tipos florestais impactados, utilizou-se o mapa de vegetação do Programa de Conservação e Utilização Sustentável da Diversidade Biológica Brasileira (PROBio). Para calcular o destino do carbono afetado foram utilizados estudos sobre estoque de carbono e biomassa dos tipos florestais presentes em Roraima. / Forest fires act as source of greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global warming and climate change. Carbon is the base of the main gases causing greenhouse effect, and it is present in forest biomass. Brazil has the largest tropical forest in the world, the Amazon. However, the quantification of greenhouse gas emissions by forest fires is difficult to measure, and there are few studies in Amazon region. Roraima is one of the Amazonian States that has a known history of fires, which enables their quantification. The objective of this study was to understand the spatio-temporal dynamics of carbon affected by forest fires occurred in Roraima among 2000-2010. In this sense, the work verified (i) the area impacted by fires in the period; (ii) the relationship between the area impacted and climatic events (El Niño, La Niña and normal years); (iii) the forest types more affected by fires and (iv) the fate of carbon affected by fires. Were used mosaics of LANDSAT TM/ETM+ composed of eight scenes each one by sampled year. The date of the scenes was preferably chosen between April and May, months that correspond to the end of the dry season in Roraima. Each mosaic was surveyed visually on a work scale of 1:50,000. It was adopted an inspection protocol along the main federal highways (BR 174, BR 210 and BR 401) to verify deforestation (i) in colonization areas, and (ii) on the border of savannas in contact with the forest. The areas burned in a given year were manually drawn after a system of checkpoints between the previous and subsequent year of construction to avoid build wrong polygon. To verification of forest types impacted, was used the vegetation map of the Programme for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Brazilian Biological Diversity, (PROBio). To calculate the fate of carbon affected were used studies on carbon stock and biomass of forest types in Roraima.

The long-term global mean temperature depends on the total amount of anthropogenic CO2 emitted. This direct link between temperature and cumulative CO2 emissions has implications for policymakers, as the cumulative emissions framework identifies the total amount of carbon that can be emitted, referred to as a cumulative carbon budget, that is consistent with reaching stabilization of the global mean temperature at desired levels, such as 1.5 °C or 2.0 °C warming above the pre-industrial level. This dissertation is a compilation of three studies that explore the relationship between warming and cumulative carbon emissions at high amounts of total carbon emitted (Project I; Chapter 2), its sensitivity to non-CO2 forcing (Project II; Chapter 3), and constraining the climate model responses with observations, in order to provide more accurate estimates of the carbon budget consistent with 1.5 °C warming above the pre-industrial level (Project III; Chapter 4). A joint summary of the key findings from each project, and their significance, is presented in Chapter 5. / Graduate / 2018-05-29

Cette thèse propose une approche quantitative intégrée pour l'analyse du rôle de la dimension spatiale de l'économie sur la demande énergétique des secteurs résidentiel et transports, ainsi que sur les émissions de carbone associées. L'approche comprend cinq étapes méthodologiques distinctes et consécutives. Après une méta-analyse des travaux économiques soulignant l'impact significatif de la structure spatiale sur la demande énergétique pour les transports (Chapitre 1), on développe et estime un modèle économétrique en coupe transversale sur la France afin d'explorer la nature causale de cet impact et d'en révéler les déterminants pour les deux secteurs, transports (Chapitre 2) et résidentiel (Chapitre 3). Ensuite, le cadre d'analyse économétrique est étendu pour intégrer la dimension longitudinale de la relation entre espace et énergie via l'effet de long terme des prix de l'immobilier sur la demande nationale de transports (Chapitre 4). L'identification d'un tel effet permet de dépasser les enjeux d'acceptabilité d'un espace entièrement planifié ainsi que ceux d'arbitrage entre bien-être individuel et maitrise des externalités négatives dues aux émissions de carbone. Enfin, l'ensemble des déterminants identifiés dans les étapes économétriques précédentes sont intégrés dans un cadre d'équilibre général calculable pour l'évaluation du potentiel de l'organisation spatiale en tant que levier additionnel de lutte contre le changement climatique (Chapitre 5). Les résultats concluent en faveur de la coordination de stratégies d'action diversifiées (axées sur les instruments de marché et/ou sur les interventions planifiées) pour l'atteinte d'objectifs énergie-climat à coûts maitrisés / This thesis develops an integrated framework to investigate the impact of the spatial dimension of the economy on the energy use from the transportation and buildings sectors, and on associated carbon emissions. The developed framework consists of five methodological steps based on econometric and quantitative approach. First, a meta-analysis is carried out to pool information across existing studies and yield new and preliminary economic insights. It is shown that spatial organization of economic activities and agents is significantly positively associated with the demand on energy for transport (Chapter 1). Next the causal impact of space on energy consumption is estimated using cross section data for the French households and further decomposed into specific determinants of the energy demand for both transport- (Chapter 2) and buildings- (Chapter 3) related activities. The econometric framework is then extended to account for the longitudinal (dynamic) dimension of the relation between space and sectoral energy use via the long-term impact of housing price on domestic transport demand (Chapter 4). Including information on housing price formation and dynamics allows encompassing broader welfare effects of spatial planning and policy than pure environmental ones. Finally, the set of determinants identified in the previous steps of the analysis are then embedded in a computable general equilibrium framework to assess the role of space and spatial planning as additional leverage to carbon pricing scheme for climate change control (Chapter 5). In the face of the energy and climate challenges ahead, this thesis quantitatively concludes in favor of taking broad and coordinated action. This comes down to identifying the available (market-based and/or regulatory) policy instruments and using them to achieve ambitious targets whilst driving down the cost of action

Many countries have committed to goals of emission reductions outlined by the Paris Agreement. The actions and results seen thus far from national governments have been lackluster notwithstanding their good faith pledges. City governments have taken it upon themselves to pick up where their national governments have failed. A large portion of emissions are due to transportation. Individuals’ daily travel patterns are typically limited to within a relatively local area. As mobility patterns differ between cities, municipalities have a unique role in transitioning to a sustainable society that blanket policies by national governments cannot achieve. This results in a bottom-up approach in achieving national commitments to the Paris Agreement. In order to make effective policies and plans, municipalities should make decisions based on known information. Before reducing emissions, it must be known where and by whom the emissions are being produced. This report uses Uppsala as a case study to explore how GIS can be used to communicate and create an understanding between data scientists and politicians so that mitigation efforts can be evidencebased. The report results in several methods for visualizing personal automobile emissions based on registration data. The report continues in discussing some potential actions that can be taken to addressing the emissions from neighborhoods indicated as large contributors by the visualizations.

No description available.

Detta examensarbete har genomförts i samarbete med Grontmij AB och är ämnat att ta fram tre olika förslag på byggnader med samma utformning men uppförda med olika material i klimatskal och stomme, för att jämföra dess energiförbrukning och slutligen analysera koldioxidutsläppen som genereras. Målet med denna studie är att påvisa vilka material som lämpar sig främst vid hållbart byggande, vilka materialval som främst kan föredras när man vill uppnå energieffektiva byggnader samt analysera dess koldioxidutsläpp. Målet är att påvisa att koldioxidutsläppen minskar med enligt de upprättade miljökraven från Stockholms Stad i samarbete med Clinton Climate Initiative. Climate Positive Development Program lanserades år 2009 och är ett gemensamt initiativ mellan Clinton Climate Initiative och US Green Building Council. Programmet stödjer 18 projekt världen över och Norra Djurgårdsstaden är ett av projekten som ska vara en förebild för framgångsrik ekonomisk och miljömässig stadsutveckling. Programmet är även en vägledning vid byggande av bostäder vilket är avgörande för evolutionen av stadsbygget. Utvecklingen kring byggande har med tiden förändrats och anpassats till mer miljövänliga och energieffektiva alternativ. Idag har det blivit mer vanligt att tala om energieffektiva byggnader och minskade koldioxidutsläpp, vilka är betydelsefulla faktorer som påverkar miljön och vår framtid avsevärt. Genom att bygga hållbart och ta hänsyn till faktorer som tidigare undvikits, kommer utvecklingen ske mot det bättre. Fokus i denna studie är att analysera hur väl de utformade byggnaderna uppfyller miljökraven som Stockholms stad har upprättat i området Norra Djurgårdsstaden, med avseende på energiförbrukning och koldioxidutsläpp. Byggnaderna utformas med hänsyn till detaljplanen för Norra 2 (del av Hjorthagen 1:3 och Norra Djurgården 1:14) samt de upprättade kraven för energiförbrukning och gestaltning. Examensarbetet skall förmedla hur mycket de olika materialen; trä, betong och stål/tegel påverkar energiförbrukningen och koldioxidutsläppen. Jämförelsen mellan respektive byggnads energiförbrukning ger en inblick i vilka material och vilken byggnadsutformning som kan vara avgörande för framtida byggande och urbanisering. Resultaten för energiförbrukningen beräknas genom programmet VIP-Energy som erhålls från Grontmij AB. Förslag 1 – trästomme, erhöll en årlig energiförbrukning på 25 kWh/m2, förslag 2 – betongstomme en på 22 kWh/m2 och förslag 3 – stålstomme med tegelfasad en på 38 kWh/m2. I denna studie har koldioxidutsläpp som genereras i samband med framställning av materialen uteslutits i beräkningarna. Med hjälp av programmet VIP-Energy har koldioxidutsläpp beräknats för respektive förslag trä, betong samt stålstomme med tegelfasad där endast byggnadsförslagens processenergi och elförsörjning beaktats. Gällande koldioxidutsläppen som värmeförsörjningen genererar har enklare handberäkningar gjorts och jämförts med olika fördelningar av distributionssystemen fjärrvärme och bergvärmepump. Koldioxidutsläppen som baseras på byggnadernas värmeförsörjning resulterade i att förslag 2 – betongstomme, som har den lägsta värmetillförseln (256 kWh), genererar minst koldioxidutsläpp genom värmedistributionen (28,34-37,12 kg CO2/år ). Värmedistributioner för förslag 1 – trästomme genererar 52,55 – 68,73 kg CO2/år och för förslag 3 – stålstomme med tegelfasad genereras 697,8 – 912,63 kg CO2/år. / This thesis has been implemented in collaboration with Grontmij AB and is intended to present three different proposals for buildings with the same design but constructed with different materials in the building envelope and structure. The proposals will be compared in their energy consumption and analyzed in their respective amounts of carbon emissions the buildings generate. The ambition is to demonstrate that carbon dioxide emissions are reduced by applying the environmental requirements from the City of Stockholm in cooperation with the Clinton Climate Initiative. Climate Positive Development Program was launched in 2009 and is a joint initiative between the Clinton Climate Initiative and the U.S. Green Building Council. The program supports 18 projects worldwide and Stockholm Royal Seaport (Norra Djurgårdsstaden) is one of the projects that will be an example to an economically successful and environmental sustainable urban development. The development of building has overtime changed and adapted to more environmental friendly and energy efficient alternatives. Energy efficient buildings and reduced carbon emissions has become more common, which are significant factors that affects the environment and our future. The development will strive for the better by building more sustainable and take the factors that have long been avoided, into account. The focus of this study is to analyze how well the designed buildings meet the environmental standards, concerning energy consumption and carbon emissions. The zon of Norra 2 (part of Hjorthagen 1:3 and Norra Djurgården 1:14) is taken into consideration while designing the buildings as well as the requirements for energy consumption and conformation. The thesis shall convey what affects the materials; wood, concrete and steel with brick façade, has on the energy consumption and carbon emission. The comparison between each buildings’ energy consumption gives an insight of which materials and which design that should be used for future constructions and urbanization.   The result of the energy consumption is calculated by the program VIP-Energy, obtained from Grontmij AB. Proposal 1 – wooden frame, received an annual energy consumption of 25 kWh/m2, proposal 2 – concrete frame received an of 22 kWh/m2 and proposal 3 – steel structure with a brick façade received an of 38 kWh/m2. The carbon dioxide emissions that are generated in relation to the making of the materials have been excluded in the calculations of this thesis. The carbon emissions has been calculated with the program VIP-Energy for each proposal; wood, concrete and steel with brick façade, where only the building proposals' process energy and electricity is taken into consideration. The heat supply is simply calculated by hand and has been compared with different distributions between district heating and geothermal heat pump. The carbon dioxide emissions are based on the buildings' energy supply. It resulted in that proposal 2, which had the lowest heat input (256 kWh), generates the least carbon emissions (28, 34 – 37, 12 kg CO2/year). The heating distribution for proposal 1 generates 52, 55 – 68, 73 kg CO2/year and proposal 3 generates 697,8 – 912,63 kg CO2/year.

Organizations can reduce carbon emissions by collecting data on what their emissions are and replace activities that are emission dense. To aid exploration, emission data can be visualized using a data visualization tool. A basic principle of designing a data visualization tool is the Visual Information Seeking Mantra (VISM): Overview first, zoom and filter, then details-on-demand. The company Measure & Change, which created a tool automating the retrieval and calculation of an organization’s emission data, has also designed a visualization tool for exploring such data. However, this tool was not created with the VISM in mind. This thesis discusses and evaluate (1) How can the data visualization tool be optimized using the design principle of Overview first, zoom and filter, details-on-demand? and (2) What is the impact of re-designing the data visualization tool in such a way? Through analysis of the dataset, user tasks, and the Visual Information Seeking Mantra, a new prototype was created. Both prototypes were then evaluated in A/B tests, with thinking aloud, a semi-structured interview, and the standardized ICE-T survey. The results suggest that the changes improved the tool, and that the user value increased. The ICE-T scores put the old implementation at 4.7, and the new prototype at 6. Visualizations scoring 5 or higher are generally accepted as valuable.