The discovery of nitric oxide (NO) as the endothelial-derived relaxing factor has led to significant research on NO and the proteins involved in its function, generation, location and regulation. Synthesis of NO by blood vessel endothelial cells results from the enzymatic oxidation of arginine by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) resulting in the formation of equimolar amounts of NO and citrulline. Citrulline is sequentially recycled to arginine by successive reactions involving the enzymes argininosuccinate synthase (AS) and argininosuccinate lyase (AL), respectively. eNOS activity has been shown to be regulated by post-translational modifications including dynamic phosphorylation on multiple serine/threonine and tyrosine residues and dynamic O-linked beta-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) modifications on serine/threonine residues.Previous studies showed that even though intracellular endothelial arginine levels range from 0.1 to 0.8 mM and the Km of eNOS for arginine is 3 uM, the addition of exogenous arginine caused an increase in NO production. To explain this "arginine paradox" we hypothesize that there is a separate and distinct cellular source of arginine substrate directed to NO production and that this source is maintained through the regeneration of arginine via a citrulline-NO cycle. The presented research has provided the following evidence in support of this hypothesis: Citrulline stimulates NO production in an arginine-rich medium, without an increase in intracellular arginine. The enzymes of the citrulline-NO cycle, eNOS, AS and AL, co-fractionate with caveolin-1 in an endothelial cell caveolar membrane fraction. In vitro interaction assays demonstrate protein-protein interactions between fusion tagged AS or AL with eNOS or caveolin-1. Simultaneous monitoring of apparent citrulline and NO production demonstrates an efficient and essential coupling of the reactions of the citrulline-NO cycle. Glucosamine treatment of endothelial cells results in increased NO production in the basal state and decreased NO production in the stimulated state.Our findings demonstrate the enzymes of the citrulline-NO cycle, eNOS, AS and AL, are functionally associated, the reactions are efficiently coupled and enzyme activities are changed by post-translational modifications based on nutrient levels. These alterations ensure a constant and distinct source of arginine which is available for NO production to ensure vascular health.

Endothelial inflammation is a pivotal early event in the development of atherosclerosis. Long term exposure to cardiovascular risk factors will ultimately exhaust those protective anti-inflammatory factors such as the heme oxygenase (HO) system. The HO system plays a critical role in cellular and tissue self-defense against oxidative stress and inflammation. Caveolae are membrane domains and are particularly abundant in endothelial cells, where they are believed to play a major role in the regulation of endothelial vesicular trafficking as well as the uptake of lipids and related lipophilic compounds, possibly including bioactive food components such as flavonoids. Research in this dissertation addresses the role of HO-1 and caveolae on dietary flavonoid epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) mediated protection against pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and linoleic acid-induced activation of endothelial cells. The data support the hypothesis that EGCG protects against TNF-α-induced monocyte recruitment and adhesion partially through the induction of HO-1 and bilirubin. The observed anti-inflammatory effects of EGCG are mimicked by the HO-1 inducer cobalt protoporphyrin (CoPP) and abolished by HO-1 gene silencing. Nrf2 is the major transcription factor of phase II antioxidant enzymes including HO-1. Results clearly show that EGCG-induced HO-1 expression and subsequent bilirubin productions are dependent on functional Nrf2. EGCG also can down-regulate the base-line level of caveolin-1. Furthermore, silencing of the caveolin-1 gene can markedly down-regulate linoleic acid-induced COX-2 and MCP-1, indicating that caveolae may be a critical platform regulating inflammatory signaling pathways. Similar to EGCG treatment, silencing of caveolin-1 can also result in the activation of Nrf2, up-regulation of HO-1 and bilirubin. This may be one of the mechanisms to explain the protection effect of caveolin-1 gene silencing against endothelial inflammation. Moreover, EGCG rapidly accumulates in caveolae, which is associated with caveolin-1 displacement from the plasma membrane towards the cytosol. Caveolin-1 gene silencing can significantly reduce the uptake of EGCG in endothelial cells within 30 min. These data suggest that caveolae may play a role in the uptake and transport of EGCG in endothelial cells. These studies provide a novel target through which EGCG functions to protect against inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis.

Diseases, such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), are linked to chronic low levels of inflammation. This inflamed state is the product of risk factors including exposure to environmental pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which are correlated with increased risk for CVD and diabetes. In response to this health risk, our research addresses the mechanisms by which coplanar PCBs elicit an inflammatory response and the mitigation of PCB-induced inflammation through dietary intervention using docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 lipid. Investigators from the University of Kentucky Engineering Department are developing remediation technologies that detoxify PCBs through dechlorination. We studied the cellular toxicity of coplanar PCB 77 remediation products in primary vascular endothelial cells. The dechlorination products elicited different toxicological responses, which were less than the parent compound and contributed to the overall inflammatory response. The presence of PCB 77 at any concentration was sufficient to promote an inflammatory response, which was attenuated with complete dechlorination. PCB 77 is a good model for coplanar PCB-induced toxicity, but in environmental and human samples, coplanar PCB 126 is detected more frequently. Using different doses of PCB 126, we determined that acute exposure to 5 μmol PCB 126/kg mouse was sufficient to produce an inflammatory response without inducing a toxic wasting phenotype. PCB-induced inflammation was attenuated in vitro by DHA-derived neuroprostanes. Applying this information, we fed mice a DHA-enriched diet and exposed them to PCB 126. Liver and adipose lipid profiles confirm an increase in omega-3 fatty acid composition and DHA metabolites, and changes in gene expression indicate a heightened anti-oxidant response in the presence of PCB-induced inflammation. These data provide an overview of the in vivo response to a PCB-induced inflammation after DHA dietary feeding. We have demonstrated that PCB-induced endothelial dysfunction is propagated through lipid domains called caveolae. Caveolae are also signaling domains for toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and receptor for lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Similar to PCBs, TLR4 signaling is inhibited by DHA. We compared the caveolae-associated signaling response after exposure to coplanar PCB 126 or LPS. The domain localization of caveolae was altered by both PCB 126 and LPS. Our study determined that PCB 126-induced inflammation was not inhibited by a TLR4-specific inhibitor, but caveolae-based signaling was critical to both PCB 126- and LPS-induced inflammation. Environmental pollutants, such as coplanar PCBs, are risk factors in the development of chronic diseases. Here we investigate possible signaling pathways associated with environmental toxicity and apply potential dietary interventions with omega-3 lipids.

Caveolae are small plasma membrane invaginations present in many different cell types, which have been linked to diverse cellular functions, including cell signalling, membrane rearrangements and lipid regulation. The caveolae markers, members of the caveolin family of proteins, are essential for caveola formation and function. Recently, however, a protein named PTRF (Polymerase I and Transcript Release Factor) or cavin, originally identified as a nuclear factor that regulates transcription in vitro, was shown to be associated with caveolae in adipocytes. In the first chapter of this thesis, I have used the zebrafish Danio rerio to investigate the relation of PTRF/cavin to caveolae as well as caveola function in vivo. During zebrafish development, PTRF/cavin was highly expressed in the notochord in 18 h, 24 h and 35 h post-fertilization embryos, as detected by in situ hybrydization. Analysis of later development stages showed that PTRF/cavin is also present in the otic vesicle, brachial arches, and periderm. Disruption of PTRF/cavin expression, via morpholino-mediated inhibition, caused severely defective development of the notochord as well as heart edema, in a dose-dependent manner. PTRF/cavin knockdown embryos had curved notochords and were shorter than the controls. Examination of the notochord by electron microscopy showed that the number of caveolae was greatly reduced in PTRF/cavin-morpholino-injected embryos. Similar effects were observed when caveolin-1, the major protein of caveolae in non-muscle cells, was down-regulated. Altogether, these results indicated a role for PTRF/cavin during formation and/or stabilization of caveolae as well as an essential role for caveolae during zebrafish embryo development. Combined with results obtained in mammalian cells, these findings identify PTRF/cavin as the first component of a caveolar coat, required for caveola formation and function (Hill et al., 2008). We subsequently identified a family of PTRF/cavin-related proteins, the cavins, that all associate with caveolae. Using biochemistry, light microscopy, and FRET-based approaches we characterised PTRF/cavin and the new members of this family of proteins SDR/cavin-2, SRBC/cavin-3 and MURC/cavin-4. We have shown that the four members of the cavin family form a multi-protein complex that associates with caveolae. This complex can constitutively assemble in the cytosol and then associate with caveolin at the plasma membrane caveolae; interestingly, caveolin is essential for the plasma membrane translocation of the cavin complex, and in caveolin-1 knockout cells the four cavin proteins are restricted to the cytosol. PTRF/cavin-1, but not other cavins, can induce caveola formation in a heterologous system and is required for the recruitment of the cavin complex to caveolae. The four cavin proteins present distinct patterns of tissue expression, which suggests that caveolae may perform tissue-specific functions regulated by the composition of the cavin complex. MURC/cavin-4 is expressed predominantly in muscle and its distribution is perturbed in human muscle disease associated with caveolin-3 dysfunction, identifying MURC/cavin-4 as a novel muscle disease candidate caveolar protein. To functionally investigate the relation of cavins and caveolae, we explored a caveolar function in mechanosensation. Through the use of hypo-osmotic media, we induced membrane-stretch and showed that the increased membrane tension leads to dissociation of the caveolin-cavin module and caveola disassembly as observed by immunofluorescence and FLIM/FRET techniques. Once released from caveolae, caveolin was seen internalized in late endosomes and lysosomes. Cavin-1, on the other hand, was found to be diffused in the cytosol and from there it was translocated to the nuclear compartment. The nuclear translocation was observed in several different cell types, which suggests a universal role for nuclear cavin-1, and was independent of caveolin expression. Analysis of live cells using real-time FLIM/FRET showed that cells quickly respond to variations in membrane tension by dissociation/re-association of caveolin and cavin-1. Altogether, in the course of this project, I was able to show that cavin-1 is an essential regulator of caveola biogenesis in cultured cells and in vivo. Cavin-1 and the other members of the PTRF/Cavin family form a multiprotein complex that is recruited to caveolae by caveolin and coats plasma membrane caveolae. The association between cavin-1 and caveolin is crucial for caveolae assembly and this interaction has a role in the cellular sensation of plasma membrane tension. Under high membrane tensions, caveolin and cavin-1 dissociate with the consequent flattening of caveolae. Under these circumstances, caveolin is internalized into enlarged endosomes and lysosomes while cavin-1 is translocated to the nucleus, identifying for the first time a caveola- to nucleus signalling pathway. The exact role of nuclear cavin-1 under plasma membrane stretch is now amenable to analysis.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Linköpings universitet, 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2006. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 130-144). Also available online.

A fibrose hepática é uma característica comum de diversas doenças crônicas do fígado e é caracterizada pela deposição excessiva de matriz extracelular no órgão. Em última instância, essa alteração anormal do parênquima hepático acarreta em hipertensão portal, cirrose e insuficiência do fígado, o que pode levar o paciente à morte. As células estreladas hepáticas (HSC) participam ativamente deste processo, modificando seu fenótipo quiescente, rico em gotas lipídicas no citoplasma, para o fenótipo ativado, em resposta a um insulto hepático. A linhagem GRX é um modelo de HSC ativadas. As caveolas são pequenas invaginações de 50-100 nm da membrana plasmática que são ricas em glicoesfingolipídeos, colesterol e proteínas GPI ancoradas. Elas são caracterizadas pela presença de caveolina, uma proteína estrutural específica desta organela. Estas pequenas organelas, consideradas especializações dos “rafts” lipídicos, estão presentes nos mais diversos tipos celulares e podem funcionar como plataformas onde se ancoram várias proteínas de membrana. Estas proteínas reconhecem sinais externos e transmitem sinais moduladores da atividade celular, regulando ou facilitando o transporte de ácidos graxos e de lipídeos, e também são responsáveis pelo transporte de vesículas de membrana. As caveolinas são as principais proteínas estruturais das caveolas, sendo a caveolina-1 (Cav-1) a mais importante. A Cav-1 é encontrada em todos os tipos celulares e está relacionada com a transformação oncogênica e tumorogênese. Estudos já mostraram a interação entre as caveolas e os filamentos de actina, os microtúbulos, e os filamentos intermediários. Em fígados cirróticos foi encontrado um aumento da expressão de Cav-1 nas células endoteliais sinusoidais e nas HSC. Em trabalho anterior, utilizamos o plasmídeo pCav1EGFP para a obtenção de uma linhagem permanente que superexpressa a Cav-1 e a proteína EFGP, a GRXEGFP-Cav. Neste trabalho, nós caracterizamos, bioquímica e morfologicamente, essa linhagem e realizamos outra transfecção com o plasmídeo vazio pCineoEGFP para estabelecer uma linhagem controle, a GRXEGFPpCineo . Através de métodos de análise bioquímica, de imunocitoquímica, de citometria de fluxo e de microscopia confocal e eletrônica de transmissão, mostramos que a superexpressão de Cav-1, aumentou a proliferação e a adesão celular, alterou a morfologia e a estrutura do citoesqueleto das células, a capacidade de migração e de endocitose da GRXEGFP-Cav. A análise ultraestrutural por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão revelou o aumento do número de caveolas na membrana plasmática. As alterações do citoesqueleto de actina e o aumento da afinidade célula-célula são indicativos de maior mobilidade celular. Esses resultados somados ao aumento do conteúdo de αSMA e Col-I sugerem a modulação da GRXEGFP-Cav para um fenótipo de miofibroblasto ativado característico de situações de dano hepático. Como a distribuição e a significância da expressão de Cav-1 em fígados normais e cirróticos são pouco conhecidas, e considerando o papel das HSC nas doenças hepáticas, entendemos que a linhagem permanente GRXEGFP-Cav pode ser uma ferramenta experimental muito interessante para o estudo destas patologias. / Liver fibrosis is a common feature of several chronic hepatic diseases and is characterized by the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix in the organ. Usually, this abnormal change of the hepatic parenchyma causes portal hypertension, cirrhosis and liver failure, which can lead to the patient death. Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) participate actively in this process through modifying their quiescent phenotype rich in lipid droplets in the cytoplasm to the activated phenotype in response to the liver injury. GRX line is a model of activated HSC. The caveolae are small invaginations of plasma membrane that reaches 50-100nm of size, rich in glycosphingolipids, cholesterol, and GPI-anchored proteins. These organelles are characterized by the presence of caveolin, a structural and specific protein. These small organelles, which are considered specializations of lipid "rafts" and can be present in several cell types, can act as anchoring platforms for several membrane proteins. These proteins recognize external signals and transmit these signals to modulate the cell activity through regulating or facilitating the transport of fatty acids and lipids, being also responsible for the transport of membrane vesicles. Caveolins are the main structural proteins of caveolae and caveolin-1 (Cav-1) is the most important. Cav-1 is found in all cell types and is related to the oncogenic transformation and tumorigenesis. Previous studies have shown the interaction among caveolae, actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Also, it was found an increase of Cav-1 expression in sinusoidal endothelial cells and HSC of cirrhotic livers, which was suggested to be related to the portal hypertension that accompanies the process of fibrosis. In a previous work, we used the pCav1EGFP plasmid to obtain a permanent cell strain that overexpresses Cav-1 protein and EFGP, which was named GRXEGFP-Cav. In this work we biochemical and morphologically characterized this strain. We also did another cell transfection with an empty pCineoEGFP plasmid to establish a permanent control cell line, which was named GRXEGFPpCineo. Through biochemical analysis, immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, confocal and electron transmission microscopy, we showed that Cav-1overexpression increased cell proliferation and adhesion, changed cell morphology and cytoskeleton structure, and the cell migration and endocytosis capacity of GRXEGFP-Cav. The actin cytoskeletal changes and the increased cell-cell affinity are indicative of greater cell motility. These results associated to the increase of αSMA and Col-I contents suggest the GRXEGFP-Cav modulation be the activated myofibroblast that characterizes liver damage. As the distribution and the significance of Cav-1 expression in normal and cirrhotic livers are little known and considering the role of HSC in liver diseases, we believe that the permanent GRXEGFP-Cav line can be a very interesting experimental tool for the study of these pathologies.

A fibrose hepática é uma característica comum de diversas doenças crônicas do fígado e é caracterizada pela deposição excessiva de matriz extracelular no órgão. Em última instância, essa alteração anormal do parênquima hepático acarreta em hipertensão portal, cirrose e insuficiência do fígado, o que pode levar o paciente à morte. As células estreladas hepáticas (HSC) participam ativamente deste processo, modificando seu fenótipo quiescente, rico em gotas lipídicas no citoplasma, para o fenótipo ativado, em resposta a um insulto hepático. A linhagem GRX é um modelo de HSC ativadas. As caveolas são pequenas invaginações de 50-100 nm da membrana plasmática que são ricas em glicoesfingolipídeos, colesterol e proteínas GPI ancoradas. Elas são caracterizadas pela presença de caveolina, uma proteína estrutural específica desta organela. Estas pequenas organelas, consideradas especializações dos “rafts” lipídicos, estão presentes nos mais diversos tipos celulares e podem funcionar como plataformas onde se ancoram várias proteínas de membrana. Estas proteínas reconhecem sinais externos e transmitem sinais moduladores da atividade celular, regulando ou facilitando o transporte de ácidos graxos e de lipídeos, e também são responsáveis pelo transporte de vesículas de membrana. As caveolinas são as principais proteínas estruturais das caveolas, sendo a caveolina-1 (Cav-1) a mais importante. A Cav-1 é encontrada em todos os tipos celulares e está relacionada com a transformação oncogênica e tumorogênese. Estudos já mostraram a interação entre as caveolas e os filamentos de actina, os microtúbulos, e os filamentos intermediários. Em fígados cirróticos foi encontrado um aumento da expressão de Cav-1 nas células endoteliais sinusoidais e nas HSC. Em trabalho anterior, utilizamos o plasmídeo pCav1EGFP para a obtenção de uma linhagem permanente que superexpressa a Cav-1 e a proteína EFGP, a GRXEGFP-Cav. Neste trabalho, nós caracterizamos, bioquímica e morfologicamente, essa linhagem e realizamos outra transfecção com o plasmídeo vazio pCineoEGFP para estabelecer uma linhagem controle, a GRXEGFPpCineo . Através de métodos de análise bioquímica, de imunocitoquímica, de citometria de fluxo e de microscopia confocal e eletrônica de transmissão, mostramos que a superexpressão de Cav-1, aumentou a proliferação e a adesão celular, alterou a morfologia e a estrutura do citoesqueleto das células, a capacidade de migração e de endocitose da GRXEGFP-Cav. A análise ultraestrutural por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão revelou o aumento do número de caveolas na membrana plasmática. As alterações do citoesqueleto de actina e o aumento da afinidade célula-célula são indicativos de maior mobilidade celular. Esses resultados somados ao aumento do conteúdo de αSMA e Col-I sugerem a modulação da GRXEGFP-Cav para um fenótipo de miofibroblasto ativado característico de situações de dano hepático. Como a distribuição e a significância da expressão de Cav-1 em fígados normais e cirróticos são pouco conhecidas, e considerando o papel das HSC nas doenças hepáticas, entendemos que a linhagem permanente GRXEGFP-Cav pode ser uma ferramenta experimental muito interessante para o estudo destas patologias. / Liver fibrosis is a common feature of several chronic hepatic diseases and is characterized by the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix in the organ. Usually, this abnormal change of the hepatic parenchyma causes portal hypertension, cirrhosis and liver failure, which can lead to the patient death. Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) participate actively in this process through modifying their quiescent phenotype rich in lipid droplets in the cytoplasm to the activated phenotype in response to the liver injury. GRX line is a model of activated HSC. The caveolae are small invaginations of plasma membrane that reaches 50-100nm of size, rich in glycosphingolipids, cholesterol, and GPI-anchored proteins. These organelles are characterized by the presence of caveolin, a structural and specific protein. These small organelles, which are considered specializations of lipid "rafts" and can be present in several cell types, can act as anchoring platforms for several membrane proteins. These proteins recognize external signals and transmit these signals to modulate the cell activity through regulating or facilitating the transport of fatty acids and lipids, being also responsible for the transport of membrane vesicles. Caveolins are the main structural proteins of caveolae and caveolin-1 (Cav-1) is the most important. Cav-1 is found in all cell types and is related to the oncogenic transformation and tumorigenesis. Previous studies have shown the interaction among caveolae, actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Also, it was found an increase of Cav-1 expression in sinusoidal endothelial cells and HSC of cirrhotic livers, which was suggested to be related to the portal hypertension that accompanies the process of fibrosis. In a previous work, we used the pCav1EGFP plasmid to obtain a permanent cell strain that overexpresses Cav-1 protein and EFGP, which was named GRXEGFP-Cav. In this work we biochemical and morphologically characterized this strain. We also did another cell transfection with an empty pCineoEGFP plasmid to establish a permanent control cell line, which was named GRXEGFPpCineo. Through biochemical analysis, immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, confocal and electron transmission microscopy, we showed that Cav-1overexpression increased cell proliferation and adhesion, changed cell morphology and cytoskeleton structure, and the cell migration and endocytosis capacity of GRXEGFP-Cav. The actin cytoskeletal changes and the increased cell-cell affinity are indicative of greater cell motility. These results associated to the increase of αSMA and Col-I contents suggest the GRXEGFP-Cav modulation be the activated myofibroblast that characterizes liver damage. As the distribution and the significance of Cav-1 expression in normal and cirrhotic livers are little known and considering the role of HSC in liver diseases, we believe that the permanent GRXEGFP-Cav line can be a very interesting experimental tool for the study of these pathologies.

A fibrose hepática é uma característica comum de diversas doenças crônicas do fígado e é caracterizada pela deposição excessiva de matriz extracelular no órgão. Em última instância, essa alteração anormal do parênquima hepático acarreta em hipertensão portal, cirrose e insuficiência do fígado, o que pode levar o paciente à morte. As células estreladas hepáticas (HSC) participam ativamente deste processo, modificando seu fenótipo quiescente, rico em gotas lipídicas no citoplasma, para o fenótipo ativado, em resposta a um insulto hepático. A linhagem GRX é um modelo de HSC ativadas. As caveolas são pequenas invaginações de 50-100 nm da membrana plasmática que são ricas em glicoesfingolipídeos, colesterol e proteínas GPI ancoradas. Elas são caracterizadas pela presença de caveolina, uma proteína estrutural específica desta organela. Estas pequenas organelas, consideradas especializações dos “rafts” lipídicos, estão presentes nos mais diversos tipos celulares e podem funcionar como plataformas onde se ancoram várias proteínas de membrana. Estas proteínas reconhecem sinais externos e transmitem sinais moduladores da atividade celular, regulando ou facilitando o transporte de ácidos graxos e de lipídeos, e também são responsáveis pelo transporte de vesículas de membrana. As caveolinas são as principais proteínas estruturais das caveolas, sendo a caveolina-1 (Cav-1) a mais importante. A Cav-1 é encontrada em todos os tipos celulares e está relacionada com a transformação oncogênica e tumorogênese. Estudos já mostraram a interação entre as caveolas e os filamentos de actina, os microtúbulos, e os filamentos intermediários. Em fígados cirróticos foi encontrado um aumento da expressão de Cav-1 nas células endoteliais sinusoidais e nas HSC. Em trabalho anterior, utilizamos o plasmídeo pCav1EGFP para a obtenção de uma linhagem permanente que superexpressa a Cav-1 e a proteína EFGP, a GRXEGFP-Cav. Neste trabalho, nós caracterizamos, bioquímica e morfologicamente, essa linhagem e realizamos outra transfecção com o plasmídeo vazio pCineoEGFP para estabelecer uma linhagem controle, a GRXEGFPpCineo . Através de métodos de análise bioquímica, de imunocitoquímica, de citometria de fluxo e de microscopia confocal e eletrônica de transmissão, mostramos que a superexpressão de Cav-1, aumentou a proliferação e a adesão celular, alterou a morfologia e a estrutura do citoesqueleto das células, a capacidade de migração e de endocitose da GRXEGFP-Cav. A análise ultraestrutural por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão revelou o aumento do número de caveolas na membrana plasmática. As alterações do citoesqueleto de actina e o aumento da afinidade célula-célula são indicativos de maior mobilidade celular. Esses resultados somados ao aumento do conteúdo de αSMA e Col-I sugerem a modulação da GRXEGFP-Cav para um fenótipo de miofibroblasto ativado característico de situações de dano hepático. Como a distribuição e a significância da expressão de Cav-1 em fígados normais e cirróticos são pouco conhecidas, e considerando o papel das HSC nas doenças hepáticas, entendemos que a linhagem permanente GRXEGFP-Cav pode ser uma ferramenta experimental muito interessante para o estudo destas patologias. / Liver fibrosis is a common feature of several chronic hepatic diseases and is characterized by the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix in the organ. Usually, this abnormal change of the hepatic parenchyma causes portal hypertension, cirrhosis and liver failure, which can lead to the patient death. Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) participate actively in this process through modifying their quiescent phenotype rich in lipid droplets in the cytoplasm to the activated phenotype in response to the liver injury. GRX line is a model of activated HSC. The caveolae are small invaginations of plasma membrane that reaches 50-100nm of size, rich in glycosphingolipids, cholesterol, and GPI-anchored proteins. These organelles are characterized by the presence of caveolin, a structural and specific protein. These small organelles, which are considered specializations of lipid "rafts" and can be present in several cell types, can act as anchoring platforms for several membrane proteins. These proteins recognize external signals and transmit these signals to modulate the cell activity through regulating or facilitating the transport of fatty acids and lipids, being also responsible for the transport of membrane vesicles. Caveolins are the main structural proteins of caveolae and caveolin-1 (Cav-1) is the most important. Cav-1 is found in all cell types and is related to the oncogenic transformation and tumorigenesis. Previous studies have shown the interaction among caveolae, actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Also, it was found an increase of Cav-1 expression in sinusoidal endothelial cells and HSC of cirrhotic livers, which was suggested to be related to the portal hypertension that accompanies the process of fibrosis. In a previous work, we used the pCav1EGFP plasmid to obtain a permanent cell strain that overexpresses Cav-1 protein and EFGP, which was named GRXEGFP-Cav. In this work we biochemical and morphologically characterized this strain. We also did another cell transfection with an empty pCineoEGFP plasmid to establish a permanent control cell line, which was named GRXEGFPpCineo. Through biochemical analysis, immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, confocal and electron transmission microscopy, we showed that Cav-1overexpression increased cell proliferation and adhesion, changed cell morphology and cytoskeleton structure, and the cell migration and endocytosis capacity of GRXEGFP-Cav. The actin cytoskeletal changes and the increased cell-cell affinity are indicative of greater cell motility. These results associated to the increase of αSMA and Col-I contents suggest the GRXEGFP-Cav modulation be the activated myofibroblast that characterizes liver damage. As the distribution and the significance of Cav-1 expression in normal and cirrhotic livers are little known and considering the role of HSC in liver diseases, we believe that the permanent GRXEGFP-Cav line can be a very interesting experimental tool for the study of these pathologies.

Oxisteróis (por exemplo, 7hidroxicolesterol) são gerados por modificações oxidativas que ocorrem na molécula de colesterol. Podem ser encontrados em elevados níveis plasmáticos em pacientes com aterosclerose e como componentes da placa aterosclerótica. Considerando que o colesterol é o principal componente da cavéola (domínios específicos da membrana plasmática que ancoram diversas proteínas de sinalização) formulamos a hipótese que os oxisteróis podem ser incorporados a estes domínios, interferindo com as vias de sinalização aí localizadas. Células endoteliais de veia umbilical humana (HUVECs) em cultura foram expostas a 7hidroxicolesterol (10g/mL) por diferentes tempos. Analisamos a incorporação desse oxisterol à cavéola utilizando espectrometria de massa e a atividade das proteínas de sinalização presentes neste domínio: óxido nítrico sintase endotelial (eNOS), CD40/CD40L, receptor do fator de crescimento de fibroblastos (rFGF), utilizando PCR quantitativo e imunoblots. Inicialmente mostramos que o 7hidroxycholesterol, em concentrações fisiológicas, foi incorporado às cavéolas mais acentuadamente que em outros domínios de membrana. Esse fenômeno impediu o desligamento entre eNOS e caveolina, prejudicando a função dessa enzima. Também mostramos que o receptor CD40 apresentou uma maior incorporação à cavéola e o rFGF manteve uma ativação mais longa quando células foram expostas ao 7hidroxicolesterol. Esses efeitos gerados pelo oxisterol não estavam relacionados à sua ação sobre mediadores inflamatórios ou receptores nucleares, desde que nenhuma diferença foi observada no perfil de citocinas ou na expressão de genes dependentes da ativação de LXR. Assim, concluímos que a incorporação de 7hidroxycholesterol nos domínios de cavéola pode interferir com vias de sinalização sabidamente envolvidas na aterogênese ou na ruptura da placa / Oxysterols (for example, 7hidroxycholesterol) are generated by oxidative modifications to cholesterol molecules. They have been described in high levels in patients with atherosclerosis and as components of the atherosclerotic plaque. Since cholesterol is the main component of caveolae (plasma membrane domains that anchor several signaling proteins), we hypothesized that oxysterol could be incorporated to these domains, interfering with the signaling networks that use this pathway. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in culture were exposed to 7hidroxycholesterol (10g/mL) for different times. We analyzed incorporation of this oxysterol to caveolae using mass spectroscopy and the activity of signaling pathways present in these domains: endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), CD40/CD40L, fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFr), using quantitative PCR and immunoblots. Initially we showed that 7hidroxycholesterol, in physiological concentrations, was incorporated to caveolae more prominently than to other plasma membrane domains. This phenomenon caused a difficulty in eNOS release from caveolin, impairing its function. We also showed that the receptor CD40 presented a stronger incorporation to caveolae and FGFr maintained a longer activation when cells were exposed to 7hidroxycholesterol. These oxysterol effects were not related to its action in inflammatory mediators or nuclear receptors, since no difference could be observed in cytokine profiles or in the expression of genes dependent on LXR activation. Therefore we conclude that 7hidroxycholesterol incorporation in caveolae domains may interfere with signaling pathways known to be involved in atherogenesis or in plaque rupture